Modulation of pre-mrna using splice modulating oligonucleotides as therapeutic agents in the treatment of disease

ABSTRACT

The present invention encompasses a class of compounds known as splice modulating oligonucleotides (SMOs) that modulate pre-mRNA splicing, thereby affecting expression and functionality of a specific protein in a cell. The present invention further provides compositions and methods for modulating pre-mRNA splicing using a SMO of the invention to abrogate disease-causing mutations in a protein. Accordingly, the present invention provides compositions and methods of treating a subject at risk of, susceptible to, or having a disease, disorder, or condition associated with aberrant or unwanted target pre-mRNA expression or activity.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/144,409, filed Jul. 13, 2011 (35 USC 371 completion on Aug. 15, 2011), which is a national stage of International Patent Application No. PCT/US2010/021078, filed Jan. 14, 2010, now expired, which claims the benefit under 35 USC 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/144,543, filed Jan. 14, 2009, now expired, which applications are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Grant No. NIH 1R21NS064223-01A1 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Approximately 90,000 known human proteins are the product of about 20,000 human genes. It is estimated that roughly 75% of human genes are subject to alternative splicing. Alternative splicing is the process responsible for this remarkable diversity of protein expression in general as well as tissue-specific expression of proteins. DNA is initially transcribed “literally” into pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) comprising introns and exons. The average human protein coding gene is 28,000 nucleotides long with 8.8 exons separated by 7.8 introns. Exons are about 120 nucleotides long while introns are anywhere from 100-100,000 nucleotides long. Pre-mRNA is first processed by a spliceosome which recognizes where introns begin and end, removes introns, and joins exons together to form a mature mRNA that is then translated into a protein.

Pre-messenger RNA splicing is an essential process required for the expression of most genes. Improperly spliced mRNA molecules lead to altered proteins that cannot function properly, resulting in disease. Alternative splicing errors are known to contribute to cancer and many neurological diseases, including β-thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), growth deficiencies, ataxia, autism, and muscular dystrophies.

5HT2CR: Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS)

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is a genetic disorder caused by the deletion of paternal copies of several genes on the 15th chromosome located in the region 15q11-13 leading to deletion of a small nucleolar ribonucleoprotein (snoRNA), HBII-52. Deletion of the same region on the maternal chromosome causes Angelman syndrome. The incidence of PWS is about 1 in 12,000 to 1 in 15,000 live births. Phenotypically, individuals afflicted with PWS typically exhibit significant cognitive impairment, hyperphagia often leading to morbid obesity, an array of compulsive behaviors, and sleep disorders.

After transcription, nascent or pre-mRNA undergoes a series of processing steps in order to generate a mature mRNA molecule. snoRNAs are non-protein coding RNAs that are 60-300 nucleotides (nt) long and that function in guiding methylation and pseudouridylation of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), and transfer RNAs (tRNAs). Each snoRNA molecule acts as a guide for only one (or two) individual modifications in a target RNA. In order to carry out the modification, each snoRNA associates with at least four protein molecules in an RNA/protein complex referred to as a small nucleolar ribonucleoprotein (snoRNP). The proteins associated with each RNA depend on the type of snoRNA molecule incorporated. The snoRNA molecule contains an antisense element (a stretch of 10-20 nucleotides) which are complementary to the sequence surrounding the nucleotide targeted for modification in the pre-RNA molecule. This enables the snoRNP to recognise and bind to the target RNA. Once the snoRNP has bound to the target site the associated proteins are in the correct physical location to catalyse the chemical modification of the target base.

The two different types of RNA modification (methylation and pseudouridylation) are directed by two different families of snoRNAs. These families of snoRNAs are referred to as antisense C/D box and H/ACA box snoRNAs based on the presence of conserved sequence motifs in the snoRNA. There are exceptions, but as a general rule C/D box members guide methylation and H/ACA members guide pseudouridylation. HBII-52, also known as SNORD115, belongs to the C/D box class of snoRNAs.

In the human genome, HBII-52 is encoded in a tandemly repeated array with another C/D box snoRNA, HBII-85, in the Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) region of human chromosome 15q11-13. This locus is maternally imprinted, meaning that only the paternal copy of the locus is transcribed.

The snoRNA HBII-52 is exclusively expressed in the brain and is absent in PWS patients. HBII-52 lacks any significant complementarity with ribosomal RNAs, but does have an 18 nucleotide region of conserved complementarity to exon 5 of serotonin 2C receptor (5-HT2CR) pre-mRNA. snoRNA HBII-52 is an example of an RNA that regulates pre-mRNA splicing by binding to a splice suppressor sequence of the 5-HT2CRgene, resulting in enhancement of exon 5b inclusion and the expression of a full-length, functional 5-HT2C receptor.

A recent study showed that these sequences co-varied among species, such that differences in nucleotides in one were always matched by complementary changes in the other; so that 100% complementarity is always present (Kishore and Stamm, 2006, Science 311:230-232). Kishore and Stamm, 2006, Science 311:230-232 also used a minigene construct to demonstrate that interaction of 5-HT2CR and HBII-52 at the consensus sequences is critical for appropriate splicing of the 5b exon so that a functional receptor is generated. When HBII-52 is mutated at sites that prevent its interaction with 5-HT2C, exon 5a is included and exon 5b is excluded. The splice variant containing 5a leads to a nonfunctional, out of frame, truncated transcript (Kishore and Stamm, 2006, Science 311:230-232).

Dysregulation of serotonergic systems appears to play a role in many cognitive disorders, including depression, autism, and obsessive compulsive disorder. Although a direct link between dysfunction of 5-HT2CR and PWS has yet to be demonstrated, 5-HT2CR knockout mice display phenotypic characteristics that are remarkably similar to those observed in PWS, including development of hyperphagia-induced obesity. In patients with PWS, satiety centers seem to be perturbed, leading to excessive overeating and obesity. Similarly, in 5-HT2C receptor knockout mice, obesity develops due to a lack of control of feeding behavior (Nonogaki et al., 1998, Nature Med. 4:1152-1156). 5-HT2CR agonists appear to be effective in inducing satiety (Nilsson, 2006, J. Med. Chem. 49:4023-4034). Another notable characteristic of patients with PWS is compulsive behavior. 5-HT2CR knockout mice also demonstrate compulsive-like behavior (Chou-Green et al., 2003, Physiol. Behav. 78:641-649). Interestingly, 5-HT2CR agonists are effective in animal models of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); suggesting dysfunction of this receptor system could play a role in this disorder (Jenck et al., 1998, Expert. Opin. Invest. Drugs 7:1587-1599; Dunlop et al., 2006, CNS Drug Rev. 12:167-177). The sleep impairment observed in many PWS patients is also found in the 5-HT2CR knockout mouse (Frank et al., 2002, Neuropsychopharmacology 27:869-873). These mice also exhibited reduced hippocampal-dependent learning and deficits in hippocampal synaptic plasticity that appears to be critical in learning and memory (Tecott et al., 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 95:15026-15031). Thus 5-HT2C receptor knockouts may replicate some of the cognitive deficits found in PWS. 5-HT2CR knockout mice therefore share many, but not all (e.g., failure to thrive, which may be mediated by HBII-85 (Ding et al., 2005, Mamm. Genome 16:424-431)), critical phenotypes with PWS patients.

AMPA Receptor: Excitotoxicity, Seizure, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

The α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (also known as AMPA receptor, AMPAR, or quisqualate receptor) is a non-NMDA-type ionotropic transmembrane receptor for glutamate in the central nervous system (CNS). Postsynaptic ion channels activated by glutamate include NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartic acid)-type glutamate channels, which are highly Ca²⁺ permeable, and AMPA-type glutamate channels, which mediate the majority of rapid excitatory neurotransmission. AMPA channels are homo- or hetero-oligomeric assemblies composed of various combinations of four possible subunits, GluR1, GluR2, GluR3 and GluR4. The Ca²⁺ conductance of AMPA receptors differs markedly according to whether the GluR2 subunit is present or not and whether it has undergone post-transcriptional RNA editing at the Q/R site. AMPA receptors that contain at least one Q/R edited GluR2 subunit are Ca²⁺ impermeable. These properties of GluR2 are generated by RNA editing at the Q/R site in the putative second transmembrane domain (M2), during which a glutamine (Q) codon is replaced by an arginine (R) codon (Seeburg et al., 2001, Brain Res. 907:233-243). It is thought that arginine in the pore of the channel impedes Ca²⁺ permeation. Analyses of adult rat, mouse, and human brains have demonstrated that almost all GluR2 mRNA in neurons is edited. In contrast, the Q/R site of GluR1, GluR3 and GluR4 subunits are always unedited, and glutamine remains at this crucial position. Therefore, AMPA receptors lacking a Q/R edited GluR2 subunit or lacking GluR2 altogether are highly Ca²⁺ permeable (Kawahara and Kwak, 2005, ALS Other Motor Neuron Disord 6:131-144; Seeburg et al., 2001, Brain Res. 907:233-243).

Alternative splicing of the GluRs plays a critical role in AMPA receptor physiology, influencing sensitivity to glutamate, kinetics of channel desensitization, and intracellular trafficking. Two specific alternatively spliced variants of all GluRs called “flip” and “flop” are normally expressed in the CNS. These consist of 115 base pair exons that constitute the flip/flop cassette (Sommer et al., 1990, Science 249:1580-1585) and encode part of the extracellular segment that precedes the fourth transmembrane domain. This domain appears to modulate receptor desensitization and channel conductance (Mosbacher et al., 1994, Science 266:1059-1062). Generally, the AMPA “flip” variants are resistant to desensitization, whereas the “flop” variants are readily desensitized, although the kinetic difference depends on the subunit and, for heteromeric channels, on subunit compositions (Grosskreutz et al., 2003, Eur. J. Neurosci. 17:1173-1178; Koike et al., 2000, J. Neurosci. 25:199-207; Mosbacher et al., 1994; Sommer et al., 1990, Science 249:1580-1585). The extracellular flip/flop region may also interact with ER luminal proteins to regulate trafficking of AMPA receptors, with flip isoforms inserted into the cell membrane and flop isoforms trapped internally (Coleman et al., 2006, J. Neurosci. 26:11220-11229), although this has yet to be confirmed in neurons. Together these data show that when flip/flop ratio of GluR1, GluR3 and GluR4 is elevated, neurons are more excitable and show greater Ca²⁺ conductance.

In motor neurons (MNs) it has been consistently demonstrated that AMPA receptor desensitization significantly impacts the shape of the glutamatergic synaptic response, as well as robustly regulating network activity (Ballerini et al., 1995, Eur. J. Neurosci. 7:1229-1234; Funk et al., 1995, J. Neurosci. 15:4046-4056). In addition, studies in several different brain regions have found that AMPA receptor desensitization has potent effects on baseline evoked and spontaneous synaptic events (Akopian and Walsh, 2007, J. Physiol. 580:225-240; Atassi and Glavinovic, 1999, Pflugers Arch. 437:471-478; Xia et al., 2005, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 313:277-285), although this is controversial, especially in hippocampus (Arai and Lynch, 1998, Brain Res. 799:230-234; Hjelmstad et al., 1999, J. Neurophysiol. 81:3096-3099). Further, AMPA receptor desensitization has been shown to be critical in shaping the synaptic response under conditions of higher frequency activity by strongly regulating synaptic integration (Arai and Lynch, 1998, Brain Res. 799:235-234; Chen et al., 2002, Neuron 33:779-788). Prolonging AMPA channel desensitization can also generate excessive network synchronization, leading to paroxysmal bursting that may interfere with normal network function (Funk et al., 1995, J. Neurosci. 15:4046-4056; Pelletier and Hablitz, 1994, J. J. Neurophysiol. 72:1032-1036; Qiu et al., 2008, J. Neurosci. 28:3567-3576). Thus, it is not surprising that reducing AMPA receptor desensitization profoundly increases excitotoxicity induced by glutamate and AMPA.

In spinal MNs, as well as in hippocampus and cerebellar granule cells, treatment with AMPA alone does not induce neurotoxicity. However, AMPA combined with cyclothiazide, which greatly reduces AMPA receptor desensitization, leads to neuronal cell death (Carriedo et al., 2000, J. Neurosci. 20:240-250; May and Robison, 1993, J. Neuroschem. 60:1171-1174; Puia et al., 2000, Prog. Neuropsychopharm. Biol. Psychiatr. 24:1007-1015). AMPA-mediated neurotoxicity is also amplified by cyclothiazide in cerebellar purkinje cells (Brorson et al., 1995, J. Neurosci. 15:4515-4524) and cortical neurons (Jensen et al., 1998, Neurochem. Int. 32:505-513). Further, in HEK293 cells, AMPA induces excitotoxicity when flip but not flop GluR isoforms are expressed (Iizuka et al., 2000, Eur. J. Neurosci. 12:3900-3908). AMPA receptor desensitization can also protect against NMDA receptor mediated excitotoxicity (Jensen et al., 1998, Neurochem. Int. 32:505-513; Zorumski et al., 1990, Neuron 5:61-66). Finally, decreases in AMPA receptor desensitization have been proposed to play a role in excitotoxicity after traumatic brain injury (Goforth et al., 1999, J. Neurosci. 19:7367-7374). Thus, AMPA receptor desensitization plays a critical role in normal neuronal function and excitotoxicity.

Emerging evidence supports the idea that Ca²⁺-permeable AMPA channels, which are highly expressed on MNs, are key contributors to injury of MNs in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) (Corona et al., 2007, Expert Opin. Ther. Targets 11:1415-1428; Van Den et al., 2006, Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 1762:1068-1082). Compared to most cell types, MNs have relatively poor capacity to buffer Ca²⁺, due to reduced levels of Ca²⁺ binding proteins including calbindin and parvalbumin (Alexianu et al., 1994, Ann. Neurol. 36:846-858; Ince et al., 1993, Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol. 19:291-299; Palecek et al., 1999, J. Physiol. 520 pt 2: 485-502). It appears that spinal MNs of ALS mice have even fewer of these Ca²⁺-binding proteins (Siklos et al., 1998, J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 57:571-587). Amplifying that point, recent studies have shown that G93A ALS mice interbred with mice overexpressing parvalbumin showed a delayed onset of motor disease (Beers et al., 2001, J. Neurochem. 79:499-509). According to a speculative model of glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity involving AMPA channels in ALS, Ca²⁺ influx through Ca²⁺-permeable AMPA channels is not adequately buffered in MNs and ends up accumulating in mitochondria. High Ca²⁺ is toxic to mitochondria, causing generation of apoptotic mediators such as ROS and cytochrome c, as well as opening of a permeability transition pore through which apoptotic mediators are released. It is thought that these mitochondrial factors are released from MNs and exert deleterious effects on glutamate transporters on adjacent astrocytes. Astrocytic glutamate transporters are responsible for taking up synaptic glutamate, and when they are compromised, glutamate accumulates in the synaptic region. The glutamate transporter with the most functional significance in this context is EAAT2/GLT-1, as it is widely expressed in astrocytes throughout the CNS and as it has the highest affinity for glutamate. In over ˜65% of ALS cases, and in ALS mice, EAAT2 activity in the cortex and spinal cord is compromised (Van Den et al., 2006, Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 1762:1068-1082). Thus, in this model, increased glutamate then further stimulates more Ca²⁺ influx though AMPA channels causing a feed-forward cycle that ultimately leads to too much Ca²⁺ in MNs. This sets into motion a cascade that leads by unknown mechanisms to MN cell death.

There is also evidence that decreased desensitization of AMPA channels, due to increased flip/flop expression ratio, may exacerbate glutamate excitotoxicity in ALS. In spinal MNs of ALS subjects, the level of the AMPA receptor flip variants was found to be significantly elevated relative to that of the flop isoforms (Tomiyama et al., 2002, Synapse 45:245-249). Although this work from a highly published neuroanatomy group is the only study thus far to examine flip/flop isoforms in spinal cord of ALS patients, the findings were quite compelling. They observed a 41-66% decrease in the flop isoforms of GluR1-3 only in the ventral horn (layer IX), where MN soma are localized. Further, they provided evidence that their transcript labeling was restricted to MN soma. Unfortunately, flip/flop protein levels were not examined, since specific antibodies for flip and flop isoforms of GluRs do not exist. A remarkably similar change in AMPA receptor flip/flop ratios was independently observed in MNs from G93A SOD1 ALS mice (Spalloni et al., 2004, Neurobiol. Dis. 15:340-350). This study showed increased flip isoforms, especially GluR3 and GluR4, and thus dramatic increases in flip to flop ratios. Interestingly, these changes were specific to mice overexpressing mutant SOD1 but were not found in mice overexpressing normal human SOD1. Further, electrophysiological studies demonstrated reduced desensitization of AMPA currents in MNs of G93A transgenics compared to control and SOD1 transgenics, as well as robust increases in blockade of desensitization by cyclothiazide. Both of these properties are characteristic of increased flip isoforms (Partin et al., 1994, Mol. Pharm. 46:129-138; Sommer et al., 1990, Science 249:1580-1585). In addition, spontaneous glutamatergic synaptic events are prolonged due to increased decay times in MNs of G93A ALS mice compared to control and SOD1 transgenics, also consistent with an increase in flip isoforms (Pieri et al., 2003, Neurosci. 122:47-58). Together, these studies indicate that aberrant flip-flop ratios are present in MNs of ALS individuals, and that these changes are replicated in a mouse model of the disease. These data strongly implicate a contribution of aberrant flip-flop levels of AMPA channels to MN excitotoxicity in ALS. Specifically, MNs with high levels of Ca²⁺-permeable AMPA receptors (Kawahara et al., 2004, Nature 427:801), and especially membrane bound non-desensitizable flip isoforms, permit enhanced postsynaptic Ca²⁺ influx in response to a given glutamate load (FIG. 2).

Increases in the flip to flop ratio in adult hippocampus have also been reported after seizures. This recapitulation of the immature phenotype after seizures is seen for many other neurotransmitter related proteins (Brooks-Kayal et al., 1998). In rat hippocampus, the flip variant of both GluR1 and GluR2 is increased after seizures induced by tetanus toxin (Rosa et al., 1999, Epilepsy Res. 36:243-251) and kindling (Kamphuis et al., 1992, Neurosci. Lett. 148:51-54; Kamphuis et al., 1994, nature 448:39-43). In hippocampal tissue from humans with epilepsy, increases in flip-flop ratios have also been reported. The GluR1 flip variant is increased in hippocampal astrocytes, as assessed both functionally with electrophysiology and at the transcript level with single-cell real time PCR (Seifert et al., 2004, J. Neurosci. 24:1996-2003). In hippocampal neurons, expression of the GluR1 flip variant is increased in CA1 after seizures (Eastwood et al., 1994, Neuroreport 5:1325-1328; de Lanerolle et al., 1998, Eur. J. Neurosci. 10:1687-1703). While the flop variant is found in CA3 and dentate in non-epileptic hippocampus (Eastwood et al., 1994, Neuroreport 5:1325-1328), in tissue from patients with TLE the flop variant of GluR1 is found only in the dentate (de Lanerolle et al., 1998, Eur. J. Neurosci. 10:1687-1703). Thus flop appears to be downregulated in CA3 in epileptic hippocampus. The increase in flip to flop ratios in epileptic hippocampus would increase synaptic gain and could contribute to post-seizure hyperexcitability.

Aph1B: Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder and results in a severe decline in cognition, and ultimately dementia, especially in the aged population. Progression of the disease is linked to the characteristic deposition of β-amyloid and tau neurofibrillary tangles (NTs).

Compelling evidence shows that amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) contributes to the etiology of AD. Aβ is a 38-43 amino acid peptide that is produced in neurons by the sequential proteolytic cleavage of APP by β-secretase and γ-secretase, the latter step yielding isoforms Aβ40 and Aβ42. Aβ42 appears to be the most highly amyloidogenic isoform. In humans, γ-secretase complexes are heterogeneous, comprised of two presenilin genes (PS1 and PS2), along with Aph1A (long or short isoforms) and Aph1B (Shirotani et al., 2004, J. Biol. Chem. 279:41340-41345).

Gamma-secretase is a tri-partite protein complex composed of presenilin, nicastrin, and ApH1. ApH1 is composed of both Aph1A and Aph1B. Transgenic elimination of Aph1B blocked the processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP) to A-beta, but did not effect the processing of other non-amyloidal substrates (Serneels et al., 2009, Science 324:639-642).

A common understanding about AD is that APP processing sequentially by BACE then gamma-secretase, results in the production of Abeta42 among other isoforms. The Abeta42 isoform, which is the direct product of gamma-secretase cleavage is thought to be especially harmful, first as a soluble factor that impairs cognition and later in the production of amyloid plaques that may further enhance disease progression. Therefore, an intense search for compounds that reduce the activity of gamma-secretase is underway. Unfortunately, in addition to actively cleaving APP, gamma-secretase also cleaves a number of other important non-amyloidal substrates, such as Notch. Thus, there is an urgent need for improved compounds that significantly reduce gamma-secretase production of Aβ-42 in the brain, without affecting its cleavage of other non-APP substrates.

O-GlcNAcase (OGA): Alzheimer's Disease

Levels of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (O-GlcNAc) modification of proteins are known to be reduced throughout the brains of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) patients due to low glucose availability, and this global alteration is thought to be pathological in AD progression (Fischer, 2008, Nature Chem. Biol. 4:448-449). Dynamic cycling of O-GlcNAc is regulated by addition through N-acetyl-D-glucosamine polypeptidyltransferase (OGT) and removal by O-GlcNAcase (OGA). Removal of O-GlcNAc from proteins by OGA may be involved in controlling multiple cellular pathways. OGA has been shown to mediate transcriptional activation both by directly modifying the transcriptome and by preventing the recycling of transcription factors in the nucleus (Bowe et al., 2006, Mol. Cell. Biol. 26:8539-8550). Additionally, OGA has been implicated in chromatin remodeling and transcriptional repression via interactions with OGT/histone deacetylase (HDAC) complexes and or C-terminal histone acetyltransferase (HAT) activity (Lazarus et al., 2009, Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 41:2134-2146; Whisenhunt et al., 2006, Glycobiol. 16:551-563). There is also evidence that phosphorylation and O-GlcNAcylation exist in dynamic equilibrium. Serine/threonine residues that otherwise may be phosphorylated by serine/threonine kinases can be instead O-GlcNAc modified, as is the case with tau (Yuzwa et al., 2008, Nat. Chem. Biol. 4:483-490). Further evidence indicates that O-GlcNAcylation of tau can cause trafficking and retention of tau in the nucleus (Guinez et al., 2005, Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 37:765-774) Importantly to AD pathology, low levels of O-GlcNAc on tau may allow for tau hyperphosphorylation, which leads to neurofibrillary tangle (NT) formation. Thus alteration of brain glycosylation will have effects on multiple pathways.

HER3: Cancer

About 25% of breast cancers involve overexpression of the HER2, with highly aggressive metastasis, and poor clinical prognosis. Herceptin shows some success against HER2 overexpressing breast cancer cells (HOBCsa), and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have shown promise in early clinical trials. However, HOBCs show remarkable acquired resistance to current drugs. Recent studies have shown HER3 is overexpressed in HOBCs and exerts a critical role in tumorogenesis, metastasis, and acquisition of resistance to TKIs (Baselga, J. & Swain, S. M. (2009) Novel anticancer targets: revisiting ERBB2 and discovering ERBB3. Nat Rev Cancer 9:463-475). For EGFRs, dimerization and transactivation by tyrosine kinase is essential for signaling activity. Although HER3 lacks intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity, the most potent EGFR activated dimers are heterodimers between HER2 and HER3, leading to potent HER3-mediated TKI resistance via activation of the PI3K-Akt pathway (Baselga et al., 2009, Nat Rev Cancer 9:463-475). Since the loss of HER3 function ameliorates the transforming capabilities of HER2, there is a pressing need for new drugs against HER3 for treating breast cancer.

Forkhead Box Protein M1 (FOXM1): Anti-Tumor

Forkhead box protein M1 (FOXM1) is a protein that is encoded by the FOX1 gene and is a member of the FOX family of transcription factors. FOXM1 is known to play a key role in cell cycle progression. There are three FOXM1 isoforms, A, B and C. Isoform FOXM1A has been shown to be a gene transcriptional repressor whereas the remaining isoforms (B and C) are both transcriptional activators. Hence, it is not surprising that FOXM1B and C isoforms have been found to be upregulated in human cancers (Wiestra et al., 2007, Biol. Chem. 388 (12): 1257-74.

The exact mechanism of FOXM1 in cancer formation remains unknown. It is thought that upregulation of FOXM1 promotes oncogenesis through abnormal impact on its multiple roles in cell cycle and chromosomal/genomic maintenance.

FOXM1 overexpression is involved in early events of carcinogenesis

FOXM1 gene is now known as a human proto-oncogene. Abnormal FOXM1 upregulation was subsequently found in the majority of solid human cancers including liver (Teh et al., 2002, Cancer Res. 62: 4773-80) breast (Wonsey et al., 2005, Cancer Res. 65 (12): 5181-9), lung (Kim et al., 2006, Cancer Res. 66 (4): 2153-61), prostate (Kahn et al., 2006, Cancer Res. 66 (3): 1712-20; cervix of uterus (Chan et al., 2008, J. Pathol. 215 (3): 245-52), colon (Douard et al., 2006, Surgery 139 (5): 665-70), pancreas (Wang et al., 2007, Cancer Res. 67 (17): 8293-300), and brain (Liu et al., 2006, Cancer Res. 66 (7): 3593-602).

Cyclophilin D: ALS, Hepatitis B Viral Infection, and Liver Cancer

Cyclophilin D (CypD) is a protein located in the matrix of the mitochondria, and is one of the components of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP). Under conditions of oxidative stress, the MPTP becomes extremely permeable to the influx of calcium ions, therein causing mitochondrial swelling eventually leading to cell apoptosis. Targeting the MPTP/CypD complex in hepatitis B virus (HBV) infected hepatocytes using the non-specific CypD inhibitor, Cyclosporin A, inhibits HBV replication (Waldemeier et al., 2003, Current Medicinal Chemistry 10:1485-1506). In addition, when used in patients with neurodegerative diseases, Cyclosporin A exhibits cytoprotective effects by way of blocking the opening of the MPTP. Although shown to be efficacious, Cyclosporin A is an immunosuppressive drug, and can also bind non-specifically to other cyclophilins, therefore causing off-target effects Inhibition of CypD expression using siRNA has been examined as a potential cardioprotective therapy (Kato et al., 2009, Cardiovasc. Res. 83:335-344). However SMOs have a therapeutic advantage over siRNA in that unlike siRNA, SMOs do not affect transcript degradation through recruitment of RNAase H which can cause immune reactions and other off target effects.

There is presently no known cure for PWS, ALS, AD or any of a number of other diseases that result from aberrant pre-mRNA splicing. There is a need in the art for the development of more selective and efficacious therapeutic agents for the treatments of various diseases and conditions affected or mediated by 5HT2CR, GluRs, OGA, Aph1B, FOXM1, ERBB3, and CypD. In addition, there are a number of diseases where altering pre-mRNA splicing may have a positive therapeutic effect even when that gene is not directly affected by the pathogenesis of the disease. Accordingly, there is an urgent need in the art for compositions and methods related to pre-mRNA splicing as it affects various diseases and disorders. The present invention fills this need.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of modulating splicing of a pre-mRNA, the method comprising contacting a cell with an effective amount of a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO), where the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA. In one aspect, the resulting mRNA encodes a protein selected from the group consisting of a glutamate activated AMPA receptor subunit (GluR), OGA, Aph1B, FOXM1, HER3, and CypD. In another aspect, the GluR is selected from the group consisting of GluR1, GluR2, GluR3, GluR4 and any combination thereof.

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of modulating splicing of a pre-mRNA, the method comprising contacting a cell with an effective amount of a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO), where the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice suppressor (ESS) site, and an intronic splice suppressor (ISS) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is included in the resulting mRNA. In one aspect, the resulting mRNA encodes a 5-HT2C receptor.

In still another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with a 5-HT2CR splicing defect, the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, exon 5b is included in the resulting mRNA encoding a full-length, functional 5-HT2C receptor, and where the SMO increases expression of a full-length, functional 5-HT2C receptor in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with a 5-HT2CR splicing defect. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 1-56.

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS), the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, exon 5b is included in the resulting mRNA encoding a full-length, functional 5-HT2C receptor, and where the SMO increases expression of the full-length, functional 5-HT2C receptor in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with PWS. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 1-56.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention comprises, a method of treating a subject afflicted with hyperphagia, the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, exon 5b is included in the resulting mRNA encoding a full-length, functional 5-HT2C receptor, and where the SMO increases expression of the full-length, functional 5-HT2C receptor in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with hyperphagia. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 1-56.

In still another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder, the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, exon 5b is included in the resulting mRNA encoding a full-length, functional 5-HT2C receptor, and where the SMO increases expression of the full-length, functional 5-HT2C receptor in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 1-56.

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of increasing expression of a transmembrane neuronal receptor in a subject, the method comprising contacting a cell with an effective amount of a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO), where the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice suppressor (ESS) site, and an intronic splice suppressor (ISS) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is included in the resulting mRNA encoding a full-length, functional transmembrane neuronal receptor, and where the SMO increases expression of the full-length, functional transmembrane neuronal receptor. In one aspect, the transmembrane neuronal receptor is a 5-HT2C receptor. In another aspect, the subject is afflicted with a disease or disorder selected from the group consisting of PWS, Angelman Syndrome, hyperphagia induced obesity, obsessive/compulsive disorder, depression, psychotic depression, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, sleep impairment, autism, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, drug addiction, spinal cord injury, traumatic brain injury, neuropathic pain, diabetes, and Alzheimer's disease.

In still another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of increasing expression of a transmembrane neuronal receptor in a subject, the method comprising contacting a cell with an effective amount of a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO), where the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA encoding the transmembrane neuronal receptor, and where the SMO increases expression of the transmembrane neuronal receptor. In one aspect, the transmembrane neuron receptor is a glutamate activated AMPA receptor subunit (GluR) selected from the group consisting of GluR1, GluR2, GluR3, GluR4, and any combination thereof.

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA encoding a GluR, where the GluR is selected from the list consisting of GluR1, GluR2, GluR3, GluR4, and any combination thereof, where the SMO decreases expression of the flip isoform of the GluR in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with ALS. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 57-526.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with epilepsy the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA encoding a GluR, where the GluR is selected from the list consisting of GluR1, GluR2, GluR3, GluR4, and any combination thereof, where the SMO decreases expression of the flip isoform of the GluR in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with epilepsy. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 57-526.

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with Alzheimer's Disease (AD), the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA, where the exon is exon 8 of the mRNA encoding O-GlcNAcase (OGA), where the SMO increases expression of OGAΔ8 in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with AD. In one aspect the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 527-611.

In still another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with Alzheimer's Disease (AD), the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice suppressor (ESS) site, and an intronic splice suppressor (ISS) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the intron adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is included in the resulting mRNA, where the intron is intron 10 of the mRNA encoding O-GlcNAcase (OGA), and where the SMO increases expression of a truncated OGA protein (OGA10t) in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with AD. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 612-661.

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with Alzheimer's Disease (AD), the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA, where the exon is exon 4 of the mRNA encoding Aph1B, where the SMO increases expression of Aph1BΔ4 in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with AD. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 662-728.

In yet another embodiment, the preset invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with a cancer, the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA, where the exon is exon 3 of the mRNA encoding HER3, and where the SMO increases expression of a HER3Δ3 in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with cancer. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 729-802. In another aspect, the cancer is selected from the group consisting of breast cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, cervical cancer, colon cancer, pancreatic cancer, and brain cancer.

In still another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with a cancer, the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice suppressor (ESS) site, and an intronic splice suppressor (ISS) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the intron adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is included in the resulting mRNA, where the intron is intron 3 of the mRNA encoding HER3, and where the SMO increases expression of a truncated HER3 protein in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with cancer. In one aspect, the method of claim 32, where the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 729-802. In another aspect, the cancer is selected from the group consisting of breast cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, cervical cancer, colon cancer, pancreatic cancer, and brain cancer.

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with a cancer, the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA, where the exon is exon 11 of the mRNA encoding HER3, and where the SMO increases expression of a HER3Δ11 in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with cancer. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 803-813. In another aspect, the cancer is selected from the group consisting of a breast cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, cervical cancer, colon cancer, pancreatic cancer, and brain cancer.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with a cancer, the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA encoding FOXM1, and where the SMO increases expression of a FOXM1Δ3 or FOXM1Δ6 in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with cancer. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 919-1090.

In still another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with a hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA, where the exon is exon 1 of the mRNA encoding CypD, and where the SMO increases expression of a CypDΔ1 in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with an HBV infection. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 814-857.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with a hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA, where the exon is exon 3 of the mRNA encoding CypD, and where the SMO increases expression of a CypDΔ3 in subject and treats the subject afflicted with an HBV infection. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 858-918.

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with a cancer, the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA, where the exon is exon 1 of the mRNA encoding CypD, and where the SMO increases expression of a CypDΔ1 in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with cancer. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 814-857. In another aspect, the cancer is a liver cancer.

In still another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with a cancer, the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA, where the exon is exon 3 of the mRNA encoding CypD, and where the SMO increases expression of a CypDΔ3 in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with cancer. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 858-918. In another aspect, the cancer is a liver cancer.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA, where the exon is exon 1 of the mRNA encoding CypD, and where the SMO increases expression of a CypDΔ1 in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with ALS. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 814-857.

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises a method of treating a subject afflicted with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), the method comprising administering a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) to the subject, where an effective amount of the SMO contacts a cell so that the SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, where when the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence, the exon adjacent to the intron-exon boundary is excluded from the resulting mRNA, where the exon is exon 3 of the mRNA encoding CypD, and where the SMO increases expression of a CypDΔ3 in the subject and treats the subject afflicted with ALS. In one aspect, the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 858-918. In another aspect, the isolated nucleic acid selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 1-1090.

In one embodiment, the present invention comprises a pharmaceutical composition comprising a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) that targets a pre-mRNA that matures to a 5HT2CR, where the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 1-56.

In still another embodiment, the present invention comprises a pharmaceutical composition comprising a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) that targets a pre-mRNA that matures to a GluR, where the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 57-526.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention comprises a pharmaceutical composition comprising a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) that targets a pre-mRNA that matures to a OGA, where the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 527-661.

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises a pharmaceutical composition comprising a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) that targets a pre-mRNA that matures to a Aph1B, where the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 662-728.

In still another embodiment, the present invention a pharmaceutical composition comprising a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) that targets a pre-mRNA that matures to a HER3, where the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 729-813.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention also comprises a pharmaceutical composition comprising a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) that targets a pre-mRNA that matures to a CypD, where the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 814-918.

In another embodiment, the present invention comprises a pharmaceutical composition comprising a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) that targets a pre-mRNA that matures to a FOXM1 where the SMO is an isolated nucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 919-1090.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there are depicted in the drawings certain embodiments of the invention. However, the invention is not limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentalities of the embodiments depicted in the drawings.

FIG. 1, comprising FIG. 1A through FIG. 1I, is a series of images depicting splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) mediated induction of full-length survival motor neuron protein (SMN) expression and concomitant phenotypic improvement in spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) mice. FIG. 1A depicts a photomicrograph of brain section in an uninjected control. FIG. 1B depicts SMO fluorescent label broadly distributed throughout brain regions 24 hours following bilateral intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of the SMO. FIG. 1C is a higher magnification of the area within the box in FIG. 1B. FIG. 1D through FIG. 1I depict results obtained from SMA mice (N=5), injected with 1 μg SMO (per ventricle) on postnatal day 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, and harvested on day 12, and compared with uninjected controls (N=9). FIG. 1D depicts the results of real-time PCR of brain sections taken at the level of hippocampus shows full-length SMN expression was increased in SMA mice following ICV injections of SMO. FIG. 1E and FIG. 1F depict Western analysis of brain sections taken at the level of hippocampus (FIG. 1E) and cervical spinal cord (FIG. 1F) showing SMN expression increases in SMA mice following ICV injections of SMO. FIG. 1G is a graph depicting SMN expression measured by Westerns as significantly increased in brain and spinal cord of SMO-treated SMA mice when measured as a percentage of wild-type controls. FIG. 1H is a graph depicting body weight of SMA mice which was significantly increased relative to un-injected controls at P12 following ICV injections of SMO (P<0.01). FIG. 1I is a graph depicting SMO-treated SMA mice with significant improvement in righting response at P12 compared to untreated controls. In total, all 5 SMO-treated mice could right themselves from at least one side, while only 3 of 9 untreated mice could accomplish this task. However, motor function was not fully restored as most SMO-treated and untreated SMA mice could not right themselves from both sides.

FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration depicting alternative splicing at the flip-flop cassette exons of glutamate receptor (GluR) subunits of AMPA receptors. Alternative splicing of mutually exclusive flip and flop exons of GluR1-4 leads to either flip exon-containing or flop-exon-containing transcripts. Co-skipping of both flip and flop exons results in out-of-frame transcripts that are truncated and unstable.

FIG. 3 depicts a ClustalW alignment of flip and flop exons of mouse GluR1-4. Dark shading indicates positions of complete identity, while lighter shading shows divergence. The sequences compared are as follows: mGluR1-flop exon (SEQ ID NO: 1090); mGluR2-flop exon (SEQ ID NO: 1091); mGluR3-flop exon (SEQ ID NO: 1092); mGluR4-flop exon (SEQ ID NO: 1093); mGluR1-flip exon (SEQ ID NO: 1094); mGluR2-flip exon (SEQ ID NO: 1095); mGluR3-flip exon (SEQ ID NO: 1096); and mGluR4-flip exon (SEQ ID NO: 1097).

FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration of candidate SMOs evaluated for skipping GluR3 flip exon. All SMO-target pairs have favorable thermodynamic properties and are complementary to splice sites and/or ESEs. The GluR3 flip exon, and adjoining intron nucleotides, is reflected in the fourth line of FIG. 4 (SEQ ID NO: 1101). The GluR4 flip exon, and adjoining intron nucleotides, is reflected in the first line of FIG. 4 (SEQ ID NO: 1098), showing only nucleotides differing from SEQ ID NO: 1101. The GluR1 flip exon, and adjoining intron nucleotides, is reflected in the second line of FIG. 4 (SEQ ID NO: 1099), showing only nucleotides differing from SEQ ID NO: 1101. The GluR2 flip exon, and adjoining intron nucleotides, is reflected in the third line of FIG. 4 (SEQ ID NO: 1100), showing only nucleotides differing from SEQ ID NO: 1101. FIG. 4 also reflects the proposed top 5 antisense oligonucleotides in the bottom two lines of the figure. From left to right and top to bottom, SEQ ID NO: 123, SEQ ID NO: 1102, SEQ ID NO: 1103, SEQ ID NO: 1104, and SEQ ID NO: 1105.

FIG. 5 is a schematic illustration of candidate SMOs evaluated for skipping GluR2 exon 15 (flip). All SMO-target pairs have favorable thermodynamic properties and are complementary to splice sites and/or ESEs. The GluR2 exon 15 (flip), and adjoining intron nucleotides, is reflected in the first line of FIG. 5 (SEQ ID NO: 1106). The candidate SMOs follow below in the following order: SEQ ID NO: 433, SEQ ID NO: 442, SEQ ID NO: 443, SEQ ID NO: 413, SEQ ID NO: 414, SEQ ID NO: 404, SEQ ID NO: 1107, SEQ ID NO: 1108 (aligned center), SEQ ID NO: 1109 (aligned right), SEQ ID NO: 1110 (aligned right), SEQ ID NO: 1111, SEQ ID NO: 412, SEQ ID NO: 441, SEQ ID NO: 1112, SEQ ID NO: 453, SEQ ID NO: 452, SEQ ID NO: 451, SEQ ID NO: 449, SEQ ID NO: 463, and SEQ ID NO: 1113 (aligned right).

FIG. 6 is a graph depicting the relative expression of GluR1, GluR2, Glur3 and GluR4 flip and flop isoforms following ICV injections of SMOs targeting GluR1-flip and GluR3-flip isoforms.

FIG. 7 is a graph depicting the relative change in expression of GluR1, GluR2, Glur3 and GluR4 flip and flop isoforms following ICV injections of SMOs targeting all four GluR flip isoforms.

FIG. 8 is a graph depicting the effect of ICV administration of a SMO targeting GluR-1 on seizure activity in mice.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to splice modulating oligonucleotides (SMOs) affecting splicing of pre-mRNA expressed from various genes. In one embodiment, the instant invention provides compositions and methods for correcting aberrant splicing of pre-mRNA that results in a defective protein and consequently causes a disease or a disorder in a subject, wherein the subject is preferably human.

In another embodiment, the instant invention provides compositions and methods for treating a human disease or disorder by modulating pre-mRNA splicing of a nucleic acid even when that nucleic acid is not aberrantly spliced in the pathogenesis of the disease or disorder being treated.

In one embodiment, the human disease or disorder is neurological. In another embodiment, the human disease is a cancer.

DEFINITIONS

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein generally have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Generally, the nomenclature used herein and the laboratory procedures in cell culture, molecular genetics, organic chemistry, and nucleic acid chemistry and hybridization are those well known and commonly employed in the art.

Standard techniques are used for nucleic acid and peptide synthesis. The techniques and procedures are generally performed according to conventional methods in the art and various general references (e.g., Sambrook and Russell, 2001, Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Approach, Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., and Ausubel et al., 2002, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, NY), which are provided throughout this document.

The nomenclature used herein and the laboratory procedures used in analytical chemistry and organic syntheses described below are those well known and commonly employed in the art. Standard techniques or modifications thereof, are used for chemical syntheses and chemical analyses.

As used herein, each of the following terms has the meaning associated with it in this section.

The articles “a” and “an” are used herein to refer to one or to more than one (i.e. to at least one) of the grammatical object of the article. By way of example, “an element” means one element or more than one element.

The term “about” will be understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art and will vary to some extent on the context in which it is used.

“Antisense” refers particularly to the nucleic acid sequence of the non-coding strand of a double stranded DNA molecule encoding a protein, or to a sequence which is substantially homologous to the non-coding strand. As defined herein, an antisense sequence is complementary to the sequence of a double stranded DNA molecule encoding a protein. It is not necessary that the antisense sequence be complementary solely to the coding portion of the coding strand of the DNA molecule. The antisense sequence may be complementary to regulatory sequences specified on the coding strand of a DNA molecule encoding a protein, which regulatory sequences control expression of the coding sequences.

By the term “applicator,” as the term is used herein, is meant any device including, but not limited to, a hypodermic syringe, a pipette, and the like, for administering the compounds and compositions of the invention.

“Complementary” as used herein refers to the broad concept of subunit sequence complementarity between two nucleic acids, e.g., two DNA molecules. When a nucleotide position in both of the molecules is occupied by nucleotides normally capable of base pairing with each other, then the nucleic acids are considered to be complementary to each other at this position. Thus, two nucleic acids are substantially complementary to each other when at least about 50%, preferably at least about 60% and more preferably at least about 80% of corresponding positions in each of the molecules are occupied by nucleotides which normally base pair with each other (e.g., A:T and G:C nucleotide pairs).

A “disease” is a state of health of subject wherein the subject cannot maintain homeostasis, and wherein if the disease is not ameliorated then the subject's health continues to deteriorate. In contrast, a “disorder” in an subject is a state of health in which the subject is able to maintain homeostasis, but in which the subject's state of health is less favorable than it would be in the absence of the disorder. Left untreated, a disorder does not necessarily cause a further decrease in the subject's state of health. In preferred embodiments, the subject is an animal. In more preferred embodiments, the subject is a mammal. In most preferred embodiments, the subject is a human.

A disease or disorder is “alleviated” if the severity of a symptom of the disease or disorder, or the frequency with which such a symptom is experienced by a subject, or both, are reduced.

The terms “effective amount” and “pharmaceutically effective amount” refer to a nontoxic but sufficient amount of an agent to provide the desired biological result. That result can be reduction and/or alleviation of the signs, symptoms, or causes of a disease or disorder, or any other desired alteration of a biological system. An appropriate effective amount in any individual case may be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using routine experimentation.

As used herein “endogenous” refers to any material from or produced inside an organism, cell, tissue or system.

As used herein, the term “exogenous” refers to any material introduced from or produced outside an organism, cell, tissue or system.

The term “expression” as used herein is defined as the transcription and/or translation of a particular nucleotide sequence.

The term “exonic regulatory elements” as used herein refers to sequences present on pre-mRNA that enhance or suppress splicing of an exon. An exonic regulatory element that enhances splicing of an exon is an exonic splicing enhancer (ESE). An exonic regulatory element that suppresses splicing of an exon is an exonic splicing suppressor (ESS). An intronic regulatory element that enhances splicing of an exon is an intronic splicing enhancer (ISE). An intronic regulatory element that suppresses splicing of an exon is called an intronic splicing suppressor (ISS).

“Instructional material,” as that term is used herein, includes a publication, a recording, a diagram, or any other medium of expression which can be used to communicate the usefulness of the composition and/or compound of the invention in a kit. The instructional material of the kit may, for example, be affixed to a container that contains the compound and/or composition of the invention or be shipped together with a container which contains the compound and/or composition. Alternatively, the instructional material may be shipped separately from the container with the intention that the recipient uses the instructional material and the compound cooperatively. Delivery of the instructional material may be, for example, by physical delivery of the publication or other medium of expression communicating the usefulness of the kit, or may alternatively be achieved by electronic transmission, for example by means of a computer, such as by electronic mail, or download from a website.

By “nucleic acid” is meant any nucleic acid, whether composed of deoxyribonucleosides or ribonucleosides, and whether composed of phosphodiester linkages or modified linkages such as phosphotriester, phosphoramidate, siloxane, carbonate, carboxymethylester, acetamidate, carbamate, thioether, bridged phosphoramidate, bridged methylene phosphonate, phosphorothioate, methylphosphonate, phosphorodithioate, bridged phosphorothioate or sulfone linkages, and combinations of such linkages. The term nucleic acid also specifically includes nucleic acids composed of bases other than the five biologically occurring bases (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine and uracil). The term “nucleic acid” typically refers to large polynucleotides.

Conventional notation is used herein to describe polynucleotide sequences: the left-hand end of a single-stranded polynucleotide sequence is the 5′-end; the left-hand direction of a double-stranded polynucleotide sequence is referred to as the 5′-direction.

The direction of 5′ to 3′ addition of nucleotides to nascent RNA transcripts is referred to as the transcription direction. The DNA strand having the same sequence as an mRNA is referred to as the “coding strand”; sequences on the DNA strand which are located 5′ to a reference point on the DNA are referred to as “upstream sequences”; sequences on the DNA strand which are 3′ to a reference point on the DNA are referred to as “downstream sequences.”

By “expression cassette” is meant a nucleic acid molecule comprising a coding sequence operably linked to promoter/regulatory sequences necessary for transcription and, optionally, translation of the coding sequence.

As used herein, the term “promoter/regulatory sequence” means a nucleic acid sequence which is required for expression of a gene product operably linked to the promoter/regulator sequence. In some instances, this sequence may be the core promoter sequence and in other instances, this sequence may also include an enhancer sequence and other regulatory elements which are required for expression of the gene product. The promoter/regulatory sequence may, for example, be one which expresses the gene product in a n inducible manner.

An “inducible” promoter is a nucleotide sequence which, when operably linked with a polynucleotide which encodes or specifies a gene product, causes the gene product to be produced substantially only when an inducer which corresponds to the promoter is present.

“Polypeptide” refers to a polymer composed of amino acid residues, related naturally occurring structural variants, and synthetic non-naturally occurring analogs thereof linked via peptide bonds. Synthetic polypeptides can be synthesized, for example, using an automated polypeptide synthesizer.

The term “protein” typically refers to large polypeptides.

The term “peptide” typically refers to short polypeptides.

Conventional notation is used herein to portray polypeptide sequences: the left-hand end of a polypeptide sequence is the amino-terminus; the right-hand end of a polypeptide sequence is the carboxyl-terminus.

A “polynucleotide” means a single strand or parallel and anti-parallel strands of a nucleic acid. Thus, a polynucleotide may be either a single-stranded or a double-stranded nucleic acid. In the context of the present invention, the following abbreviations for the commonly occurring nucleic acid bases are used. “A” refers to adenosine, “C” refers to cytidine, “G” refers to guanosine, “T” refers to thymidine, and “U” refers to uridine.

The term “oligonucleotide” typically refers to short polynucleotides, generally no greater than about 60 nucleotides. It will be understood that when a nucleotide sequence is represented by a DNA sequence (i.e., A, T, G, C), this also includes an RNA sequence (i.e., A, U, G, C) in which “U” replaces “T.”

The term “recombinant DNA” as used herein is defined as DNA produced by joining pieces of DNA from different sources.

The term “recombinant polypeptide” as used herein is defined as a polypeptide produced by using recombinant DNA methods.

By the term “specifically binds,” as used herein, is meant a molecule, such as an antibody, which recognizes and binds to another molecule or feature, but does not substantially recognize or bind other molecules or features in a sample.

By the term “splice defect of a protein”, as used herein, is meant a defective protein resulting from a defect in the splicing of an RNA encoding a protein.

The term “treatment,” as used herein, refers to reversing, alleviating, delaying the onset of, inhibiting the progress of, and/or preventing a disease or disorder, or one or more symptoms thereof, to which the term is applied in a subject. In some embodiments, treatment may be applied after one or more symptoms have developed. In other embodiments, treatment may be administered in the absence of symptoms. For example, treatment may be administered prior to symptoms (e.g., in light of a history of symptoms and/or one or more other susceptibility factors), or after symptoms have resolved, for example to prevent or delay their reoccurrence.

Throughout this disclosure, various aspects of this invention can be presented in a range format. It should be understood that the description in range format is merely for convenience and brevity and should not be construed as an inflexible limitation on the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the description of a range should be considered to have specifically disclosed all the possible subranges as well as individual numerical values within that range. For example, description of a range such as from 1 to 6 should be considered to have specifically disclosed subranges such as from 1 to 3, from 1 to 4, from 1 to 5, from 2 to 4, from 2 to 6, from 3 to 6 etc., as well as individual and partial numbers within that range, for example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5.5 and 6. This applies regardless of the breadth of the range.

DESCRIPTION

The present invention encompasses a class of compounds known as splice modulating oligonucleotides (SMOs) that modulate pre-mRNA splicing, thereby affecting expression and functionality of a specific protein in a cell. A SMO specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA at an exon or intron splice suppressor or splice enhancer site, or at an intron-exon splice site. When a SMO specifically binds to a splice enhancer site, or an intron-exon splice site, the adjacent exon is excluded from the resulting mRNA. In another embodiment, a SMO specifically binds to a splice suppressor site or an intron-exon site and the adjacent exon is included in the resulting mRNA. In another embodiment, a SMO specifically binds to a splice enhancer site or an intron-exon splice site and shifts the reading frame of the pre-mRNA so that the resulting protein is a truncated. In some cases, the resulting protein is a limited-function, or non-functional protein.

The location of an exonic or intronic splice enhancer or suppressor motif may be found anywhere within the exon and the flanking introns. Similarly, a SMO may either fully or partially overlap a predicted exonic or intronic splice enhancer or suppressor site in proximity to an intron-exon boundary and/or be complementary to the predicted 3′ or 5′ splice sites.

I. Compositions: Splice Modulating Oligonucleotides

The present invention is directed, in part, to oligonucleotides referred to herein as splice modulating oligonucleotides (SMOs), suitable for use in modulating splicing of a target pre-mRNA both in vitro and in vivo. The present invention also includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO suitable for modulating splicing of a target pre-mRNA both in vitro and in vivo. In vivo methodologies are useful for both general splice site modulatory purposes, as well as in therapeutic applications in which modulating splicing of a target pre-mRNA is desirable.

A. 5-Hydroxytryptamine (Serotonin) Receptor 2C (5-HT2CR)

The present invention provides SMOs based on the consensus sequence of the 5-HT2CR (HTR2c; MIM: 312861 GeneID: 3358), including upstream and downstream nucleotides (Table 1). These SMOs are used according to the methods of the invention to modulate splicing of 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA. In one embodiment, these SMOs are used according to the methods of the invention to modulate splicing of 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA caused by a deletion of the 15q11-13 region of the 15^(th) chromosome that results in a deletion of the snoRNA HBII-52. In another embodiment, a SMO of the invention functions to mimic the function of HBII-52. In another embodiment, a SMO of the invention functions to increase expression of a functional 5-HT2CR transcript containing exon 5b.

In some embodiments, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition that comprises a SMO that functions to modulate splicing of 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA. In other embodiments, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition that comprises a SMO that functions to modulate splicing of 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA caused by a deletion of the 15q11-13 region of the 15^(th) chromosome that results in a deletion of the snoRNA HBII-52. In another embodiment, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition that comprises a SMO that functions to mimic the function of HBII-52. In still another embodiment, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition that comprises a SMO that functions to increase expression of a functional 5-HT2CR transcript containing exon 5b.

Table 1 depicts exemplary SMOs useful for modulating splicing of 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA in order to mimic the effect of HBII-52 snoRNA or increase the expression or function of 5HT2CR containing exon 5b.

TABLE 1 3′ to 5′ SMOs targeting the 5-HT2C pre-mRNA SEQ ID NO. 5-HT2C sequence: 3′-CGAUACGAGUUAUCCUAAUGCAUA-5′ GCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUA 1 15 nucleotide (nt) SMO GGAUAACUCGUAUCG 2 AGGAUAACUCGUAUC 3 UAGGAUAACUCGUAU 4 UUAGGAUAACUCGUA 5 AUUAGGAUAACUCGU 6 CAUUAGGAUAACUCG 7 GCAUUAGGAUAACUC 8 UGCAUUAGGAUAACU 9 AUGCAUUAGGAUAAC 10 UAUGCAUUAGGAUAA 11 16 nt SMO AGGAUAACUCGUAUCG 12 UAGGAUAACUCGUAUC 13 UUAGGAUAACUCGUAU 14 AUUAGGAUAACUCGUA 15 CAUUAGGAUAACUCGU 16 GCAUUAGGAUAACUCG 17 UGCAUUAGGAUAACUC 18 AUGCAUUAGGAUAACU 19 UAUGCAUUAGGAUAAC 20 17 nt SMO UAGGAUAACUCGUAUCG 21 UUAGGAUAACUCGUAUC 22 AUUAGGAUAACUCGUAU 23 CAUUAGGAUAACUCGUA 24 GCAUUAGGAUAACUCGU 25 UGCAUUAGGAUAACUCG 26 AUGCAUUAGGAUAACUC 27 UAUGCAUUAGGAUAACU 28 18 nt SMO GCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUA 29 UUAGGAUAACUCGUAUCG 30 AUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUC 31 CAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAU 32 UGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGU 33 AUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCG 34 UAUGCAUUAGGAUAACUC 35 19 nt SMO AUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUCG 36 CAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUC 37 GCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAU 38 UGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUA 39 AUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGU 40 UAUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCG 41 20 nt SMO CAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUCG 42 GCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUC 43 UGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAU 44 AUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUA 45 UAUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGU 46 21 nt SMO GCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUCG 47 UGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUC 48 AUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAU 49 UAUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUA 50 22 nt SMO UGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUCG 51 AUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUC 52 UAUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAU 53 23 nt SMO AUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUCG 54 UAUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUC 55 24 nt SMO UAUGCAUUAGGAUAACUCGUAUCG 56

B. Glutamate Receptors

The present invention further provides SMOs based on the sequences of the flip and flop isoforms of GluR1 (GRIA 1; MIM: 138248 GeneID: 2890), GluR2 (GRIA2;MIM: 138247 GeneID: 2891), GluR3 (GRIA3;MIM: 305915 GeneID: 2892), and GluR4 (GRIA4;MIM: 138246 GeneID: 2893). These SMOs are used according to the methods of the invention to modulate splicing of GluR pre-mRNA. In one embodiment, a SMO of the invention functions to decrease GluR flip isoform expression. In another embodiment, a SMO of the invention functions to decrease the GluR flip/flop isoform ratio. In yet another embodiment, a SMO of the invention functions to increase the GluR flop isoform. In still another embodiment, a SMO of the invention functions to increase the GluR flop isoforms. In various embodiments, a SMO of the invention functions to decrease both the GluR flip and GluR flop isoform expression.

In various embodiments, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO of the invention, where the pharmaceutical composition of the invention comprises a SMO that functions to decrease the GluR flip isoform expression. In other embodiments, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO that decrease the GluR flip/flop isoform ratio of expression. In another embodiment, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO that functions to increase the GluR flop isoform expression. In yet another embodiment, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO of the invention that functions to decrease both the GluR flip and GluR flop isoform expression.

Table 2 depicts exemplary SMOs useful for modulating splicing of GluR3 pre-mRNA in order to decrease GluR3-flip expression or increase GluR3-flop expression in a cell.

TABLE 2 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides SEQ ID directed to GluR3-flip pre-mRNA NO. aaagggugcacuucUUGCGGACAU 57 aagggugcacuucUUGCGGACAUU 58 agggugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUU 59 gggugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUG 60 ggugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGG 61 gugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGA 62 ugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAA 63 gcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAAC 64 cacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACG 65 acuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGU 66 cuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUC 67 uucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCA 68 ucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAU 69 cUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUA 70 UUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAA 71 UGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAAC 72 GCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAACU 73 aaagggugcacuucUUGCGGACA 74 aagggugcacuucUUGCGGACAU 75 agggugcacuucUUGCGGACAUU 76 gggugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUU 77 ggugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUG 78 gugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGG 79 ugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGA 80 gcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAA 81 cacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAAC 82 acuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACG 83 cuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGU 84 uucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUC 85 ucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCA 86 cUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAU 87 UUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUA 88 UGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAA 89 GCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAAC 90 CGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAACU 91 aaagggugcacuucUUGCGGAC 92 aagggugcacuucUUGCGGACA 93 agggugcacuucUUGCGGACAU 94 gggugcacuucUUGCGGACAUU 95 ggugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUU 96 gugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUG 97 ugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGG 98 gcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGA 99 cacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAA 100 acuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAAC 101 cuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACG 102 uucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGU 103 ucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUC 104 cUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCA 105 UUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAU 106 UGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUA 107 GCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAA 108 CGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAAC 109 GGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAACU 110 aaagggugcacuucUUGCGGA 111 aagggugcacuucUUGCGGAC 112 agggugcacuucUUGCGGACA 113 gggugcacuucUUGCGGACAU 114 ggugcacuucUUGCGGACAUU 115 gugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUU 116 ugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUG 117 gcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGG 118 cacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGA 119 acuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAA 120 cuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAAC 121 uucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACG 122 ucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGU 123 cUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUC 124 UUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCA 125 UGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAU 126 GCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUA 127 CGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAA 128 GGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAAC 129 GACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAACU 130 aaagggugcacuucUUGCGG 131 aagggugcacuucUUGCGGA 132 agggugcacuucUUGCGGAC 133 gggugcacuucUUGCGGACA 134 ggugcacuucUUGCGGACAU 135 gugcacuucUUGCGGACAUU 136 ugcacuucUUGCGGACAUUU 137 gcacuucUUGCGGACAUUUG 138 cacuucUUGCGGACAUUUGG 139 acuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGA 140 cuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAA 141 uucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAAC 142 ucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACG 143 cUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGU 144 UUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUC 145 UGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCA 146 GCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAU 147 CGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUA 148 GGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUAA 149 aaagggugcacuucUUGCG 150 aagggugcacuucUUGCGG 151 agggugcacuucUUGCGGA 152 gggugcacuucUUGCGGAC 153 ggugcacuucUUGCGGACA 154 gugcacuucUUGCGGACAU 155 ugcacuucUUGCGGACAUU 156 gcacuucUUGCGGACAUUU 157 cacuucUUGCGGACAUUUG 158 acuucUUGCGGACAUUUGG 159 cuucUUGCGGACAUUUGGA 160 uucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAA 161 ucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAAC 162 cUUGCGGACAUUUGGAACG 163 UUGCGGACAUUUGGAACGU 164 UGCGGACAUUUGGAACGUC 165 GCGGACAUUUGGAACGUCA 166 CGGACAUUUGGAACGUCAU 167 GGACAUUUGGAACGUCAUA 168 aaagggugcacuucUUGC 169 aagggugcacuucUUGCG 170 agggugcacuucUUGCGG 171 gggugcacuucUUGCGGA 172 ggugcacuucUUGCGGAC 173 gugcacuucUUGCGGACA 174 ugcacuucUUGCGGACAU 175 gcacuucUUGCGGACAUU 176 cacuucUUGCGGACAUUU 177 acuucUUGCGGACAUUUG 178 cuucUUGCGGACAUUUGG 179 uucUUGCGGACAUUUGGA 180 ucUUGCGGACAUUUGGAA 181 cUUGCGGACAUUUGGAAC 182 UUGCGGACAUUUGGAACG 183 UGCGGACAUUUGGAACGU 184 GCGGACAUUUGGAACGUC 185 CGGACAUUUGGAACGUCA 186 GGACAUUUGGAACGUCAU 187

Table 3 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of GluR1 pre-mRNA in order to decrease GluR1-flip expression or increase GluR1-flop expression in a cell.

TABLE 3 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides SEQ ID directed to GluR1-flip pre-mRNA NO. caacuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUC 188 aacuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCG 189 acuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGC 190 cuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCC 191 uucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCA 192 ucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCAA 193 cUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCAAA 194 UCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCAAAA 195 caacuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAU 196 aacuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUC 197 acuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCG 198 cuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGC 199 uucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCC 200 ucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCA 201 cUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCAA 202 UCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCAAA 203 CCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCAAAA 204 caacuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGA 205 aacuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAU 206 acuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUC 207 cuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCG 208 uucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGC 209 ucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCC 210 cUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCA 211 UCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCAA 212 CCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCAAA 213 caacuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGG 214 aacuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGA 215 acuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAU 216 cuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUC 217 uucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCG 218 ucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGC 219 cUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCC 220 UCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCA 221 CCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCAA 222 caacuucUCCAGGGCAUUUG 223 aacuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGG 224 acuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGA 225 cuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAU 226 uucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUC 227 ucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCG 228 cUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGC 229 UCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCC 230 CCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCCA 231 caacuucUCCAGGGCAUUU 232 aacuucUCCAGGGCAUUUG 233 acuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGG 234 cuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGA 235 uucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAU 236 ucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUC 237 cUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCG 238 UCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGC 239 CCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGCC 240 caacuucUCCAGGGCAUU 241 aacuucUCCAGGGCAUUU 242 acuucUCCAGGGCAUUUG 243 cuucUCCAGGGCAUUUGG 244 uucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGA 245 ucUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAU 246 cUCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUC 247 UCCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCG 248 CCAGGGCAUUUGGAUCGC 249 ACCUUCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUU 250 CCUUCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUC 251 CUUCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCc 252 UUCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCCa 253 UCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcag 254 CGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcagu 255 GUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguc 256 UUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguca 257 CCUUCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUU 258 CUUCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUC 259 UUCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCc 260 UCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCca 261 CGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcag 262 GUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcagu 263 UUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguc 264 UCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguca 265 CUUCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUU 266 UUCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUC 267 UCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCc 268 CGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCCa 269 GUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcag 270 UUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcagu 271 UCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguc 272 CCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguca 273 UUCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUU 274 UCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUC 275 CGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCc 276 GUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCca 277 UUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcag 278 UCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcagu 279 CCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguc 280 CUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguca 281 UCGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUU 282 CGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUC 283 GUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCc 284 UUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCca 285 UCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcag 286 CCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcagu 287 CUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguc 288 UGAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguca 289 CGUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUU 290 GUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUC 291 UUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCc 292 UCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCca 293 CCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcag 294 CUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcagu 295 UGAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguc 296 GAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguca 297 GUUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUU 298 UUCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUC 299 UCCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCc 300 CCUGAGGCCUUCAUUCca 301 CUGAGGCCUUCAUUCcag 302 UGAGGCCUUCAUUCcagu 303 GAGGCCUUCAUUCcaguc 304 AGGCCUUCAUUCcaguca 305

Table 4 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of all GluR subtypes, including GluR1, GluR2, GluR3, and GluR4 pre-mRNA in order to decrease GluR1-4-flip expression or increase GluR1-4-flop expression in a cell.

TABLE 4 3′ to 5′ SMOs targeting GluR1, SEQ ID GluR2, GluR3, and GluR4 NO. UUCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUUU 306 UUCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUU 307 UCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUUU 308 UUCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUU 309 UCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUU 310 CCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUUU 311 UUCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACU 312 UCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUU 313 CCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUU 314 CGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUUU 315 UUCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGAC 316 UCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACU 317 CCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUU 318 CGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUU 319 GCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUUU 320 UUCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGA 321 UCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGAC 322 CCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACU 323 CGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUU 324 GCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUU 325 CAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUUU 326 UUCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCG 327 UCCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGA 328 CCGCAGAUUCUGUUCGAC 329 CGCAGAUUCUGUUCGACU 330 GCAGAUUCUGUUCGACUU 331 CAGAUUCUGUUCGACUUU 332 AGAUUCUGUUCGACUUUU 333 UUGUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACU 334 UGUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUU 335 GUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUUU 336 UUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUUUU 337 UUGUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGAC 338 UGUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACU 339 GUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUU 340 UUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUUU 341 UCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUUUU 342 UUGUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGA 343 UGUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGAC 344 GUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACU 345 UUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUU 346 UCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUUU 347 CCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUUUU 348 UUGUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCG 349 UGUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGA 350 GUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGAC 351 UUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACU 352 UCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUU 353 CCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUUU 354 CGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUUUU 355 UUGUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUC 356 UGUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCG 357 GUUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGA 358 UUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGAC 359 UCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACU 360 CCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUU 361 UUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGA 362 UCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGAC 363 CCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACU 364 CGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACUU 365 UUCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCG 366 UCCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGA 367 CCGUAGAAUCUGUUCGAC 368 CGUAGAAUCUGUUCGACU 369 ACUUUUCGUUUACCACCAUGCU 370 ACUUUUCGUUUACCACCAUGC 371 CUUUUCGUUUACCACCAUGCU 372 CUUUUCGUUUACCACCAUGC 373 CUUUUCGUUUACCACCAUGC 374 UUUUCGUUUACCACCAUGCU 375 UUUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGAAU 376 UUUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGAA 377 UUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGAAU 378 UUUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGA 379 UUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGAA 380 UGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGAAU 381 UUUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAG 382 UUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGA 383 UGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGAA 384 GAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGAAU 385 UUUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUA 386 UUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAG 387 UGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGA 388 GAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGAA 389 AGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGAAU 390 UUUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGU 391 UUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUA 392 UGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAG 393 GAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGA 394 AGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGAA 395 GUCACUUGUUCCGUAGAAU 396 UUGAGUCACUUGUUCCGU 397 UGAGUCACUUGUUCCGUA 398 GAGUCACUUGUUCCGUAG 399 AGUCACUUGUUCCGUAGA 400

Table 5 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of GluR2 pre-mRNA in order to decrease GluR2-flip expression or increase GluR2-flop expression in a cell.

TABLE 5 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides SEQ ID directed to flip GluR2 NO. gcacuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAAC 401 cacuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACG 402 acuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGU 403 cuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUC 404 uucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCA 405 ucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCAU 406 cUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCAUA 407 UUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCAUAA 408 UGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCAUAAC 409 gcacuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAA 410 cacuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAAC 411 acuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACG 412 cuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGU 413 uucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUC 414 ucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCA 415 cUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCAU 416 UUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCAUA 417 UGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCAUAA 418 gcacuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGA 419 cacuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAA 420 acuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAAC 421 cuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACG 422 uucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGU 423 ucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUC 424 cUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCA 425 UUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCAU 426 UGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCAUA 427 gcacuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAG 428 cacuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGA 429 acuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAA 430 cuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAAC 431 uucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACG 432 ucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGU 433 cUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUC 434 UUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCA 435 UGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCAU 436 gcacuucUUGGGGUCAUUUA 437 cacuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAG 438 acuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGA 439 cuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAA 440 uucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAAC 441 ucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACG 442 cUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGU 443 UUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUC 444 UGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUCA 445 gcacuucUUGGGGUCAUUU 446 cacuucUUGGGGUCAUUUA 447 acuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAG 448 cuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGA 449 uucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAA 450 ucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAAC 451 cUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACG 452 UUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGU 453 UGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGUC 454 gcacuucUUGGGGUCAUU 455 cacuucUUGGGGUCAUUU 456 acuucUUGGGGUCAUUUA 457 cuucUUGGGGUCAUUUAG 458 uucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGA 459 ucUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAA 460 cUUGGGGUCAUUUAGAAC 461 UUGGGGUCAUUUAGAACG 462 UGGGGUCAUUUAGAACGU 463

Table 6 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of GluR4 pre-mRNA in order to decrease GluR4-flip expression or increase GluR4-flop expression in a cell.

TABLE 6 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides directed to all flip GluR4 SEQ ID NO. gcacuucUUGAGGACAUUUGGAAC 464 cacuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACG 465 acuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGG 466 cuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGC 467 uucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCA 468 ucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCAA 469 cUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCAAA 470 UUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCAAAA 471 UGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCAAAAC 472 gcacuucUUGAGGACAUUUGGAA 473 cacuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAAC 474 acuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACG 475 cuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGG 476 uucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGC 477 ucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCA 478 cUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCAA 479 UUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCAAA 480 UGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCAAAA 481 gcacuucUUGAGGACAUUUGGA 482 cacuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAA 483 acuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAAC 484 cuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACG 485 uucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGG 486 ucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGC 487 cUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCA 488 UUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCAA 489 UGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCAAA 490 gcacuucUUGAGGACAUUUGG 491 cacuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGA 492 acuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAA 493 cuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAAC 494 uucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACG 495 ucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGG 496 cUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGC 497 UUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCA 498 UGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCAA 499 gcacuucUUGAGGACAUUUG 500 cacuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGG 501 acuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGA 502 cuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAA 503 uucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAAC 504 ucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACG 505 cUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGG 506 UUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGC 507 UGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGCA 508 gcacuucUUGAGGACAUUU 509 cacuucUUGAGGUCAUUUG 510 acuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGG 511 cuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGA 512 uucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAA 513 ucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAAC 514 cUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACG 515 UUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGG 516 UGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGGC 517 gcacuucUUGAGGACAUU 518 cacuucUUGAGGUCAUUU 519 acuucUUGAGGUCAUUUG 520 cuucUUGAGGUCAUUUGG 521 uucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGA 522 ucUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAA 523 cUUGAGGUCAUUUGGAAC 524 UUGAGGUCAUUUGGAACG 525 UGAGGUCAUUUGGAACGG 526

C. O-GlcNAcase (OGA)

The present invention further provides SMOs based on the sequences of OGA (MGEA5; MIM: 604039; GeneID: 10724). These SMOs are used according to the methods of the invention to modulate splicing of OGA pre-mRNA. In one embodiment, a SMO of the invention functions to decrease OGA expression or function. In another embodiment, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO of the invention, where the pharmaceutical composition of the invention comprises a SMO that functions to decrease the OGA expression or function. In one aspect, an alternative splice variant of OGA with reduced catalytic activity comprises OGA10t, a read-through variant which results in 15 amino acids being added from intron 10. In another aspect, an alternative splice variant of OGA with reduced catalytic activity comprises OGAΔ8 wherein exon 8 of the OGA gene is excluded.

Table 7 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of exon 8 of OGA pre-mRNA in order to produce an OGA protein with lower enzymatic activity in a cell.

TABLE 7 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides targeting Exon 8 of OGA SEQ ID NO. gucGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUGAC 527 ucGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUGACA 528 cGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUGACAU 529 UCUUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUUCU 530 CACUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUAC 531 ACUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUACA 532 gucGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUGA 533 ucGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUGAC 534 cGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUGACA 535 UCUUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUUC 536 CUUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUUCU 537 CACUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUA 538 ACUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUAC 539 CUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUACA 540 GGAGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacucaa 541 gucGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUG 542 ucGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUGA 543 cGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUGAC 544 UCUUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUU 545 CUUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUUC 546 UUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUUCU 547 CACUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACU 548 ACUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUA 549 CUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUAC 550 UGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUACA 551 GGAGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacuca 552 GAGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacucaa 553 gucGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAU 554 ucGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUG 555 cGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUGA 556 UCUUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCU 557 CUUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUU 558 UUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUUC 559 UUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUUCU 560 CACUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGAC 561 ACUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACU 562 CUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUA 563 UGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUAC 564 GCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUACA 565 GGAGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacuc 566 GAGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacuca 567 AGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacucaa 568 gucGACUGUCACUUCUGUCA 569 ucGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAU 570 cGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAUG 571 UCUUUUACUUCCGUCACUGC 572 CUUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCU 573 UUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUU 574 UUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUUC 575 UUACUUCCGUCACUGCUUCU 576 CACUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGA 577 ACUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGAC 578 CUGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACU 579 UGCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUA 580 GCUUCUGUAACUUUGACUAC 581 CUUCUGUAACUUUGACUACA 582 GGAGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacu 583 GAGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacuc 584 AGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacuca 585 GUAGUUAUGUCGUcacucaa 586 gucGACUGUCACUUCUGUC 587 ucGACUGUCACUUCUGUCA 588 cGACUGUCACUUCUGUCAU 589 UCUUUUACUUCCGUCACUG 590 CUUUUACUUCCGUCACUGC 591 UUUUACUUCCGUCACUGCU 592 UUUACUUCCGUCACUGCUU 593 UUACUUCCGUCACUGCUUC 594 UACUUCCGUCACUGCUUCU 595 GGAGUAGUUAUGUCGUcac 596 GAGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacu 597 AGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacuc 598 GUAGUUAUGUCGUcacuca 599 UAGUUAUGUCGUcacucaa 600 agugucGACUGUCACUUC 601 gucGACUGUCACUUCUGU 602 ucGACUGUCACUUCUGUC 603 cGACUGUCACUUCUGUCA 604 ACUUCCGUCACUGCUUCU 605 GGAGUAGUUAUGUCGUca 606 GAGUAGUUAUGUCGUcac 607 AGUAGUUAUGUCGUcacu 608 GUAGUUAUGUCGUcacuc 609 UAGUUAUGUCGUcacuca 610 AGUUAUGUCGUcacucaa 611

Table 8 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of exon 10 of OGA pre-mRNA in order to produce an OGA protein with lower enzymatic activity in a cell.

TABLE 8 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides directed exon 10 of OGA SEQ ID NO. UUUAGAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCca 612 UUAGAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcau 613 UAGAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcauc 614 AGAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcaucc 615 GAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcaucca 616 UUAGAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCca 617 UAGAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcau 618 AGAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcauc 619 GAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcaucc 620 AAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcaucca 621 UAGAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCca 622 AGAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcau 623 GAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcauc 624 AAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcaucc 625 AAACAUGUCACCAAUCcaucca 626 GAUACCACUUUAGAAAACAUGU 627 AGAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCca 628 GAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcau 629 AAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcauc 630 AAACAUGUCACCAAUCcaucc 631 AACAUGUCACCAAUCcaucca 632 GAUACCACUUUAGAAAACAUG 633 AUACCACUUUAGAAAACAUGU 634 GAAAACAUGUCACCAAUCca 635 AAAACAUGUCACCAAUCcau 636 AAACAUGUCACCAAUCcauc 637 AACAUGUCACCAAUCcaucc 638 ACAUGUCACCAAUCcaucca 639 GAUACCACUUUAGAAAACAU 640 AUACCACUUUAGAAAACAUG 641 UACCACUUUAGAAAACAUGU 642 AAAACAUGUCACCAAUCca 643 AAACAUGUCACCAAUCcau 644 AACAUGUCACCAAUCcauc 645 ACAUGUCACCAAUCcaucc 646 CAUGUCACCAAUCcaucca 647 GAUACCACUUUAGAAAACA 648 AUACCACUUUAGAAAACAU 649 UACCACUUUAGAAAACAUG 650 ACCACUUUAGAAAACAUGU 651 AAACAUGUCACCAAUCca 652 AACAUGUCACCAAUCcau 653 ACAUGUCACCAAUCcauc 654 CAUGUCACCAAUCcaucc 655 AUGUCACCAAUCcaucca 656 GAUACCACUUUAGAAAAC 657 AUACCACUUUAGAAAACA 658 UACCACUUUAGAAAACAU 659 ACCACUUUAGAAAACAUG 660 CCACUUUAGAAAACAUGU 661

D. Aph1B

The present invention further provides SMOs based on the sequences of Aph1B (APH1B; MIM: 607630; GeneID: 83464). These SMOs are used according to the methods of the invention to modulate splicing of Aph1B pre-mRNA. In one embodiment, a SMO of the invention functions to decrease Aph1B expression or function. In another embodiment, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO of the invention, where the pharmaceutical composition of the invention comprises a SMO that functions to decrease the Aph1B expression or function. In one aspect, the SMO contacts an Aph1B pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the Aph1B pre-mRNA such that “in-frame” exon 4 is skipped, resulting in Aph1BΔ4, a non-functional protein.

Table 9 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of Alph1B pre-mRNA in order to produce a non-functional protein with lower enzymatic activity in a cell.

TABLE 9 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides directed to exon 4 of Aph1B SEQ ID NO. aaaagaaggacaaaucAAAGAC 662 aaagaaggacaaaucAAAGACC 663 aagaaggacaaaucAAAGACC 664 aagaaggacaaaucAAAGAC 665 agaaggacaaaucAAAGACC 666 agaaggacaaaucAAAGAC 667 gaaggacaaaucAAAGACC 668 aaggacaaaucAAAGACC 669 GAAACCUUAGUACUCACCUCA 670 AAACCUUAGUACUCACCUCA 671 AACCUUAGUACUCACCUCA 672 AACCUUAGUACUCACCUC 673 GAAACCUUAGUACUCACCUC 674 AACCUUAGUACUCACCUCAU 675 ACCUUAGUACUCACCUCAUA 676 CCUUAGUACUCACCUCAUAA 677 GAAACCUUAGUACUCACCU 678 AAACCUUAGUACUCACCUC 679 ACCUUAGUACUCACCUCAU 680 CCUUAGUACUCACCUCAUA 681 ACCUUAGUACUCACCUCA 682 CCUUAGUACUCACCUCAU 683 GGUCCGUGUCACCCGUAAGU 684 GUCCGUGUCACCCGUAAGUA 685 UCCGUGUCACCCGUAAGUAC 686 CCGUGUCACCCGUAAGUACC 687 GGUCCGUGUCACCCGUAAG 688 GUCCGUGUCACCCGUAAGU 689 UCCGUGUCACCCGUAAGUA 690 CCGUGUCACCCGUAAGUAC 691 CGUGUCACCCGUAAGUACC 692 GGUCCGUGUCACCCGUAA 693 GUCCGUGUCACCCGUAAG 694 UCCGUGUCACCCGUAAGU 695 CCGUGUCACCCGUAAGUA 696 CGUGUCACCCGUAAGUAC 697 GUGUCACCCGUAAGUACC 698 AUAAGUCcauacacagaguauc 699 UAAGUCcauacacagaguaucg 700 AAGUCcauacacagaguaucga 701 AGUCcauacacagaguaucgac 702 GUCcauacacagaguaucgaca 703 UCcauacacagaguaucgacag 704 Ccauacacagaguaucgacagu 705 AUAAGUCcauacacagaguau 706 UAAGUCcauacacagaguauc 707 AAGUCcauacacagaguaucg 708 AGUCcauacacagaguaucga 709 GUCcauacacagaguaucgac 710 UCcauacacagaguaucgaca 711 AUAAGUCcauacacagagua 712 UAAGUCcauacacagaguau 713 AAGUCcauacacagaguauc 714 AGUCcauacacagaguaucg 715 GUCcauacacagaguaucga 716 UCcauacacagaguaucgac 717 Ccauacacagaguaucgaca 718 AUAAGUCcauacacagagu 719 AAGUCcauacacagaguau 720 AGUCcauacacagaguauc 721 GUCcauacacagaguaucg 722 UCcauacacagaguaucga 723 Ccauacacagaguaucgac 724 GUCcauacacagaguauc 725 UCcauacacagaguaucg 726 Ccauacacagaguaucga 727 UAAGUCcauacac 728

E. HER3

The present invention further provides SMOs based on the sequences of HER3 (ERBB3; MIM 190151; 2065). These SMOs are used according to the methods of the invention to modulate splicing of HER3 pre-mRNA. In one embodiment, a SMO of the invention functions to decrease HER3 expression or function. In another embodiment, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO of the invention, where the pharmaceutical composition of the invention comprises a SMO that functions to decrease HER3 expression or function. In one aspect, the SMO contacts a HER3 pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the HER3 pre-mRNA to favor expression of HER3Δ3, a variant in which exon 3 of HER3 is deleted and is, thus, non-functional. In another aspect, the SMO contacts a HER3 pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the HER3 pre-mRNA to favor expression of HER3Δ11, a variant in which exon 11 of HER3 is deleted and the mature protein is non-functional. In still another aspect, the SMO contacts a HER pre-mRNA and modulates splicing of the HER3 pre-mRNA to favor inclusion of intron 3 of HER3, thus enhancing expression of a truncated, non-functional protein.

Table 10 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of HER3 pre-mRNA in order to either block a 3′ splice site of exon 3 or include intron 3, thereby increasing expression of a truncated protein in a cell.

TABLE 10 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides targeting exon 3 of HER3 SEQ ID NO. CGGUCGAGGCGAACUGAGUCGAGU 729 UGAGUCGAGUGGCcagucaaggg 730 GGCGAACUGAGUCGAGUGGCca 731 GCGAACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcag 732 CGAACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcagu 733 GAACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcaguc 734 AACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcaguca 735 ACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcagucaa 736 CUGAGUCGAGUGGCcagucaag 737 UGAGUCGAGUGGCcagucaagg 738 GAGUCGAGUGGCcagucaaggg 739 GCGAACUGAGUCGAGUGGCca 740 CGAACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcag 741 GAACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcagu 742 AACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcaguc 743 ACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcaguca 744 CUGAGUCGAGUGGCcagucaa 745 UGAGUCGAGUGGCcagucaag 746 GAGUCGAGUGGCcagucaagg 747 AGUCGAGUGGCcagucaaggg 748 CGAACUGAGUCGAGUGGCca 749 GAACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcag 750 AACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcagu 751 ACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcaguc 752 CUGAGUCGAGUGGCcaguca 753 UGAGUCGAGUGGCcagucaa 754 GAGUCGAGUGGCcagucaag 755 AGUCGAGUGGCcagucaagg 756 GUCGAGUGGCcagucaaggg 757 GAACUGAGUCGAGUGGCca 758 AACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcag 759 ACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcagu 760 CUGAGUCGAGUGGCcaguc 761 UGAGUCGAGUGGCcaguca 762 GAGUCGAGUGGCcagucaa 763 AGUCGAGUGGCcagucaag 764 GUCGAGUGGCcagucaagg 765 UCGAGUGGCcagucaaggg 766 AACUGAGUCGAGUGGCca 767 ACUGAGUCGAGUGGCcag 768 CUGAGUCGAGUGGCcagu 769 UGAGUCGAGUGGCcaguc 770 GAGUCGAGUGGCcaguca 771 AGUCGAGUGGCcagucaa 772 GUCGAGUGGCcagucaag 773 UCGAGUGGCcagucaagg 774 CGAGUGGCcagucaaggg 775 ACUGAGUCGAGUGGCca 776 CUGAGUCGAGUGGCcag 777 UGAGUCGAGUGGCcagu 778 GAGUCGAGUGGCcaguc 779 AGUCGAGUGGCcaguca 780 GUCGAGUGGCcagucaa 781 UCGAGUGGCcagucaag 782 CGAGUGGCcagucaagg 783 GAGUGGCcagucaaggg 784 CUGAGUCGAGUGGCca 785 UGAGUCGAGUGGCcag 786 GAGUCGAGUGGCcagu 787 AGUCGAGUGGCcaguc 788 GUCGAGUGGCcaguca 789 UCGAGUGGCcagucaa 790 CGAGUGGCcagucaag 791 GAGUGGCcagucaagg 792 AGUGGCcagucaaggg 793 UGAGUCGAGUGGCca 794 GAGUCGAGUGGCcag 795 AGUCGAGUGGCcagu 796 GUCGAGUGGCcaguc 797 UCGAGUGGCcaguca 798 CGAGUGGCcagucaa 799 GAGUGGCcagucaag 800 AGUGGCcagucaagg 801 GUGGCcagucaaggg 802

Table 11 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of HER3 pre-mRNA in order to exclude exon 11 thereby increasing expression of a non-functional protein in a cell.

TABLE 11 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides directed to exon 11 of HER3 [[Should refer to them ONLY as SMOs or oligonucleotides throughout.]] SEQ ID NO. cggagagagguuggggagucCAAU 803 ggggagucCAAUGGACUUGUAGGU 804 gggagucCAAUGGACUUGUAGGUC 805 cggagagagguuggggagucCAA 806 ggagucCAAUGGACUUGUAGGUC 807 cggagagagguuggggagucCA 808 gagucCAAUGGACUUGUAGGUC 809 agucCAAUGGACUUGUAGGUC 810 gucCAAUGGACUUGUAGGUC 811 ucCAAUGGACUUGUAGGUC 812 ucCAAUGGACUUGUAGGU 813

F. Cyclophilin D

The present invention further provides SMOs based on the sequences of CypD (PPID; MIM: 601753 GeneID: 5481). These SMOs are used according to the methods of the invention to modulate splicing of CypD pre-mRNA. In one embodiment, a SMO of the invention functions to decrease CypD expression or function. In another embodiment, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO of the invention, where the pharmaceutical composition of the invention comprises a SMO that functions to decrease the CypD expression or function. In one aspect, the SMO contacts a CypD pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the CypD pre-mRNA to favor expression of CypDΔ1, a variant in which exon 1 of CypD is deleted and is, thus, non-functional. In another aspect, the SMO contacts an CypD pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the CypD pre-mRNA to favor expression of CypDΔ3, a variant in which exon 3 of CypD is deleted and is, thus, non-functional.

Table 12 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of CypD pre-mRNA in order to exclude exon 1 thereby decreasing expression of a functional CypD protein in a cell.

TABLE 12 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides directed to targeting exon 1 of CypD SEQ ID NO. UGCAGACGUUCAGUUCUACAGCGU 814 UGCAGACGUUCAGUUCUACAGCG 815 UGCAGACGUUCAGUUCUACAGC 816 UGCAGACGUUCAGUUCUACAG 817 UGCAGACGUUCAGUUCUACA 818 UGCAGACGUUCAGUUCUAC 819 AGACGUUCAGUUCUACAGCGUGGG 820 AGACGUUCAGUUCUACAGCGUGG 821 AGACGUUCAGUUCUACAGCGUG 822 AGACGUUCAGUUCUACAGCGU 823 AGACGUUCAGUUCUACAGCG 824 UGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcacucg 825 GUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcacucg 826 UAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcacucg 827 AGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcacucg 828 GCCUCCCCUCGCUCcacucg 829 CCUCCCCUCGCUCcacucg 830 CUGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcacuc 831 UGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcacuc 832 GUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcacuc 833 UAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcacuc 834 AGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcacuc 835 GCCUCCCCUCGCUCcacuc 836 CCUGUACCUCCCCUCGCUCcacu 837 CUGUACCUCCCCUCGCUCcacu 838 UGUACCUCCCCUCGCUCcacu 839 GUACCUCCCCUCGCUCcacu 840 UACCUCCCCUCGCUCcacu 841 ACCUCCCCUCGCUCcacu 842 ACCUGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcac 843 CCUGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcac 844 CUGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcac 845 UGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcac 846 GUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCcac 847 CACCUGUACCUCCCCUCGCUCca 848 ACCUGUACCUCCCCUCGCUCca 849 CCUGUACCUCCCCUCGCUCca 850 CUGUACCUCCCCUCGCUCca 851 UGUACCUCCCCUCGCUCca 852 GCACCUGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCc 853 CACCUGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCc 854 ACCUGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCc 855 CCUGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCc 856 CUGUAGCCUCCCCUCGCUCc 857

Table 13 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of CypD pre-mRNA in order to exclude exon 3 thereby decreasing expression of a functional CypD protein in a cell.

TABLE 13 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides directed to targeting exon 3 of CypD SEQ ID NO. acaucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACUA 858 acaucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACU 859 acaucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUAC 860 acaucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUA 861 acaucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAU 862 acaucAAUAAUUCUUUAAA 863 caucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACUAA 864 caucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACUA 865 caucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACU 866 caucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUAC 867 caucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUA 868 caucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAU 869 aucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACUAAG 870 aucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACUAA 871 aucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACUA 872 aucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACU 873 aucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUAC 874 aucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUA 875 ucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACAAAGU 876 ucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACAAAG 877 ucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACAAA 878 ucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACAA 879 ucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACA 880 ucAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUAC 881 cAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACUAAGUC 882 cAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACUAAGU 883 cAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACUAAG 884 cAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACUAA 885 cAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUACUA 886 cAAUAAUUCUUUAAAUAC 887 UUUAGUCUUACCCUGUCCACCUCU 888 UUAGUCUUACCCUGUCCACCUCU 889 UAGUCUUACCCUGUCCACCUCU 890 AGUCUUACCCUGUCCACCUCU 891 AGUCUUACCCUGUCCACCUC 892 AGUCUUACCCUGUCCACCU 893 GUCUUACCCUGUCCACCUCUUUCA 894 UCUUACCCUGUCCACCUCUUUCA 895 CUUACCCUGUCCACCUCUUUCA 896 UUACCCUGUCCACCUCUUUCA 897 UACCCUGUCCACCUCUUUCA 898 ACCCUGUCCACCUCUUUCA 899 ACUUUUUAAACUUCUACUUU 900 UUCUACUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCc 901 UCUACUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCc 902 CUACUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCc 903 UACUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCc 904 ACUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCc 905 CUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCc 906 CUACUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCca 907 UACUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCca 908 ACUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCca 909 CUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCca 910 UUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCca 911 UUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCca 912 CUACUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCcau 913 UACUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCcau 914 ACUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCcau 915 CUUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCcau 916 UUUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCcau 917 UUUAAAGGUAAUGUUCcau 918

G. FOXM1

The present invention further provides SMOs based on the sequences of FOXM1 (FOXM1; MIM: 602341; GeneID: 2305). These SMOs are used according to the methods of the invention to modulate splicing of FOXM1 pre-mRNA. In one embodiment, a SMO of the invention functions to decrease FOXM1 expression. In another embodiment, the invention includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO of the invention, where the pharmaceutical composition of the invention comprises a SMO that functions to decrease the FOXM1 expression. In one aspect, the SMO contacts a FOXM1 pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the FOXM1 pre-mRNA to favor expression of FOXM1Δ3, a variant in which exon 3 of FOXM1 D is excluded. In another aspect, the SMO contacts an FOXM1 pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the FOXM1 pre-mRNA to favor expression of FOXM1Δ6, a variant in which exon 6 of FOXM1 is excluded.

Table 14 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of FOXM1 pre-mRNA in order to exclude exon 3 thereby decreasing expression of a functional FOXM1 protein in a cell.

TABLE 14 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides directed to targeting Exon 3 of FOXM1 SEQ ID NO. GUAGGUCACCGAAGCUUUCUAC 919 GUAGGUCACCGAAGCUUUCUA 920 GUAGGUCACCGAAGCUUUCU 921 CCUCUUAACAGUGGACCUCGUC 922 CCUCUUAACAGUGGACCUCGU 923 CUCUUAACAGUGGACCUCGU 924 CUCUUAACAGUGGACCUCG 925 CUCUUAACAGUGGACCUC 926 ACCUCGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCca 927 CCUCGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcau 928 CUCGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacu 929 UCGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacuu 930 CCUCGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCca 931 CUCGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcac 932 UCGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacu 933 CGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacuu 934 GUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacuua 935 UCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacuuaa 936 CUCGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCca 937 UCGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcac 938 CGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacu 939 GUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacuu 940 UCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacuua 941 CGCUGUCCAAUUCcacuuaa 942 UCGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCca 943 CGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcac 944 GUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacu 945 UCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacuu 946 CGCUGUCCAAUUCcacuua 947 GCUGUCCAAUUCcacuuaa 948 CGUCGCUGUCCAAUUCca 949 GUCGCUGUCCAAUUCcac 950 UCGCUGUCCAAUUCcacu 951 CGCUGUCCAAUUCcacuu 952 GCUGUCCAAUUCcacuua 953

Table 15 depicts exemplary SMOs for modulating splicing of FOXM1 pre-mRNA in order to exclude exon 6 decreasing expression of a functional FOXM1 protein in a cell.

TABLE 15 3′ to 5′ Splice modulating oligonucleotides directed to targeting Exon 6 of FOXM1 SEQ ID NO. GGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGUCGG 954 GGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGUCGGU 955 GGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGUCGG 956 GGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGUCG 957 GGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGUC 958 GGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGU 959 cGGCGGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUC 960 cGGCGGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGU 961 cGGCGGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGG 962 cGGCGGUGGUCGGUGACCUGG 963 cGGCGGUGGUCGGUGACCUG 964 cGGCGGUGGUCGGUGACCU 965 ccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGUCGG 966 ccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGUCG 967 ccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGUC 968 ccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGU 969 ccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGG 970 ccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUG 971 accGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGUCG 972 accGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGUC 973 accGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGU 974 accGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGG 975 accGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUG 976 accGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGU 977 gaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGUC 978 gaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGU 979 gaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGG 980 gaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUG 981 gaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGU 982 gaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGG 983 ggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGGU 984 ggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGG 985 ggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUG 986 ggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGU 987 ggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGG 988 ggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCG 989 cggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUGG 990 cggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGUG 991 cggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGGU 992 cggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCGG 993 cggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGCG 994 cggaccGGCGGUGGUCGGC 995 CGGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCCCA 996 CGGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCCC 997 CGGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCC 998 CGGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUC 999 CGGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGU 1000 GGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCCCAG 1001 GGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCCCA 1002 GGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCCC 1003 GGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCC 1004 GGUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUC 1005 GUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCCCAGA 1006 GUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCCCAG 1007 GUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCCCA 1008 GUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCCC 1009 GUGGUCGGUGACCUGGGUCC 1010 UGGGUCCCAGAGGUGUUAACGGGC 1011 UGGGUCCCAGAGGUGUUAACGGG 1012 UGGGUCCCAGAGGUGUUAACGG 1013 UGGGUCCCAGAGGUGUUAACG 1014 UGGGUCCCAGAGGUGUUAAC 1015 GGGUCCCAGAGGUGUUAACGGGCU 1016 GGGUCCCAGAGGUGUUAACGGGC 1017 GGGUCCCAGAGGUGUUAACGGG 1018 GGGUCCCAGAGGUGUUAACGG 1019 GGGUCCCAGAGGUGUUAACG 1020 CCCAGAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGUG 1021 CCCAGAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGU 1022 CCCAGAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCG 1023 CCCAGAGGUGUUAACGGGCUC 1024 CCCAGAGGUGUUAACGGGCU 1025 AGAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGUGAAC 1026 AGAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGUGAA 1027 AGAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGUGA 1028 AGAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGUG 1029 AGAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGU 1030 GAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGUGAACC 1031 GAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGUGAAC 1032 GAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGUGAA 1033 GAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGUGA 1034 GAGGUGUUAACGGGCUCGUG 1035 GUUAACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGU 1036 GUUAACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAG 1037 GUUAACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUA 1038 GUUAACGGGCUCGUGAACCUU 1039 GUUAACGGGCUCGUGAACCU 1040 GUUAACGGGCUCGUGAACC 1041 UUAACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUc 1042 UAACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUc 1043 AACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUc 1044 ACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUc 1045 CGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUc 1046 GGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUc 1047 UAACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUca 1048 AACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUca 1049 ACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUca 1050 CGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUca 1051 GGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUca 1052 GGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUca 1053 AACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcau 1054 ACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcau 1055 CGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcau 1056 GGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcau 1057 GGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcau 1058 GCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcau 1059 ACGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauu 1060 CGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauu 1061 GGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauu 1062 GGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauu 1063 GCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauu 1064 CUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauu 1065 CGGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauuc 1066 GGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauuc 1067 GGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauuc 1068 GCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauuc 1069 CUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauuc 1070 UCGUGAACCUUAGUcauuc 1071 GGGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauucc 1072 GGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauucc 1073 GCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauucc 1074 CUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauucc 1075 UCGUGAACCUUAGUcauucc 1076 CGUGAACCUUAGUcauucc 1077 GGCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauucca 1078 GCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauucca 1079 CUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauucca 1080 UCGUGAACCUUAGUcauucca 1081 CGUGAACCUUAGUcauucca 1082 GUGAACCUUAGUcauucca 1083 GCUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauuccaa 1084 CUCGUGAACCUUAGUcauuccaa 1085 UCGUGAACCUUAGUcauuccaa 1086 CGUGAACCUUAGUcauuccaa 1087 GUGAACCUUAGUcauuccaa 1088 UGAACCUUAGUcauuccaa 1089

It will be appreciated by the skilled artisan that a SMO useful in practicing the methods of the invention should not be considered to be limited to those SMO sequences explicitly recited herein, but rather should be considered to include any SMO sufficiently complementary to a target pre-mRNA in such a way as to modulate its splicing. The invention also encompasses all derivatives, variants, and modifications of the SMOs of the invention, as described elsewhere herein.

Oligonucleotides of the invention are of any size and/or chemical composition sufficient to specifically bind to a target RNA (e.g., pre-mRNA). In exemplary embodiments, the oligonucleotides of the invention are oligonucleotides of between about 5-300 nucleotides (or modified nucleotides), preferably between about 10-100 nucleotides (or modified nucleotides; e.g., ribonucleotides or modified ribonucleotides), for example, between about 15-35, e.g., about 15-20, 20-25, 25-30, 30-35 (31, 32, 33, 34, 35), or 35-40 nucleotides (or modified nucleotides; e.g., ribonucleotides or modified ribonucleotides).

Synthesis of SMOs

An oligonucleotide of the invention, i.e. the SMO, can be synthesized using any procedure known in the art, including chemical synthesis, enzymatic ligation, organic synthesis, and biological synthesis.

In one embodiment, an RNA molecule, e.g., SMO, is prepared chemically. Methods of synthesizing RNA and DNA molecules are known in the art, in particular, the chemical synthesis methods as described in Verma and Eckstein (1998) Annul Rev. Biochem. 67:99-134. RNA can be purified from a mixture by extraction with a solvent or resin, precipitation, electrophoresis, chromatography, or a combination thereof. Alternatively, the RNA may be used with no or a minimum of purification to avoid losses due to sample processing.

Modifications of SMOs

In a preferred aspect, the oligonucleotides of the present invention (i.e. SMOs) are modified to improve stability in serum or growth medium for cell cultures, or otherwise to enhance stability during delivery to subjects and/or cell cultures. In order to enhance the stability, the 3′-residues may be stabilized against degradation, e.g., they may be selected such that they consist of purine nucleotides, particularly adenosine or guanosine nucleotides. Alternatively, substitution of pyrimidine nucleotides by modified analogues, e.g., substitution of uridine by 2′-deoxythymidine can be tolerated without affecting the efficiency of oligonucleotide reagent-induced modulation of splice site selection. For example, the absence of a 2′ hydroxyl may significantly enhance the nuclease resistance of the oligonucleotides in tissue culture medium.

In an embodiment of the present invention the oligonucleotides, e.g., SMOs, may contain at least one modified nucleotide analogue. The nucleotide analogues may be located at positions where the target-specific activity, e.g., the splice site selection modulating activity is not substantially effected, e.g., in a region at the 5′-end and/or the 3′-end of the oligonucleotide molecule. Particularly, the ends may be stabilized by incorporating modified nucleotide analogues.

Preferred nucleotide analogues include sugar- and/or backbone-modified ribonucleotides (i.e., include modifications to the phosphate-sugar backbone). For example, the phosphodiester linkages of natural RNA may be modified to include at least one of a nitrogen or sulfur heteroatom. In preferred backbone-modified ribonucleotides the phosphoester group connecting to adjacent ribonucleotides is replaced by a modified group, e.g., of phosphothioate group. In preferred sugar-modified ribonucleotides, the 2′ OH-group is replaced by a group selected from CH₃, H, OR, R, halo, SH, SR, NH₂, NHR, NR₂ or ON, wherein R is C₁-C₆ alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl and halo is F, Cl, Br or I. In a preferred embodiment, the 2′ OH-group is replaced by CH₃.

Also preferred are nucleobase-modified ribonucleotides, i.e., ribonucleotides, containing at least one non-naturally occurring nucleobase instead of a naturally occurring nucleobase. Bases may be modified to block the activity of adenosine deaminase. Exemplary modified nucleobases include, but are not limited to phosphorothioate derivatives and acridine substituted nucleotides, 2′O-methyl substitutions, 5-fluorouracil, 5-bromouracil, 5-chlorouracil, 5-iodouracil, hypoxanthine, xanthine, 4-acetylcytosine, 5-(carboxyhydroxylmethyl)uracil, 5-carboxymethylaminomethyl-2-thiouridine, 5-carboxymethylaminomethyluracil, dihydrouracil, beta-D-galactosylqueosine, inosine, N6-isopentenyladenine, 1-methylguanine, 1-methylinosine, 2,2-dimethylguanine, 2-methyladenine, 2-methylguanine, 3-methylcytosine, 5-methylcytosine, N6-adenine, 7-methylguanine, 5-methylaminomethyluracil, 5-methoxyaminomethyl-2-thiouracil, beta-D-mannosylqueosine, 5′-methoxycarboxymethyluracil 1,5-methoxyuracil, 2-methylthio-N-6-isopentenyladenine, uracil-5-oxyacetic acid (v), wybutoxosine, pseudouracil, queosine, 2-thiocytosine, 5-methyl-2-thiouracil, 2-thiouracil, 4-thiouracil, 5-methyluracil, uracil-5-oxyacetic acid methylester, uracil-5-oxyacetic acid (v), 5-methyl-2-thiouracil, 3-(3-amino-3-N2-carboxypropyl) uracil, (acp3)w, and 2,6-diaminopurine, uridine and/or cytidine modified at the 5-position, e.g., 5-(2-amino)propyl uridine, 5-bromo uridine; adenosine and/or guanosines modified at the 8 position, e.g., 8-bromo guanosine; deaza nucleotides, e.g., 7-deaza-adenosine; O- and N-alkylated nucleotides, e.g., N6-methyl adenosine. It should be noted that the above modifications may be combined. Oligonucleotides of the invention also may be modified with chemical moieties (e.g., cholesterol) that improve the in vivo pharmacological properties of the oligonucleotides.

Within the oligonucleotides (e.g., oligoribonucleotides) of the invention, as few as one and as many as all nucleotides of the oligonucleotide can be modified. For example, a 20-mer oligonucleotide (e.g., oligoribonucleotide) of the invention may contain 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 or 20 modified nucleotides. In preferred embodiments, the modified oligonucleotides (e.g., oligoribonucleotides) of the invention will contain as few modified nucleotides as are necessary to achieve a desired level of in vivo stability and/or bioaccessibility while maintaining cost effectiveness. An SMOs of the invention include oligonucleotides synthesized to include any combination of modified bases disclosed herein in order to optimize function. In one embodiment, a SMO of the invention comprises at least two different modified bases. In another embodiment, a SMO of the invention may comprise alternating 2′O-methyl substitutions and LNA bases.

An oligonucleotide of the invention can be an α-anomeric nucleic acid molecule. An α-anomeric nucleic acid molecule forms specific double-stranded hybrids with complementary RNA in which, contrary to the usual α-units, the strands run parallel to each other (Gaultier et al., 1987, Nucleic Acids Res. 15:6625-6641). The oligonucleotide can also comprise a 2′-o-methylribonucleotide (Inoue et al., 1987, Nucleic Acids Res. 15:6131-6148) or a chimeric RNA-DNA analogue (Inoue et al., 1987, FEBS Lett. 215:327-330).

In various embodiments, the oligonucleotides of the invention can be modified at the base moiety, sugar moiety or phosphate backbone to improve, e.g., the stability, hybridization, or solubility of the molecule. For example, the deoxyribose phosphate backbone of the nucleic acid molecules can be modified to generate peptide nucleic acid molecules (see Hyrup et al., 1996, Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 4(1): 5-23). As used herein, the terms “peptide nucleic acids” or “PNAs” refer to nucleic acid mimics, e.g., DNA mimics, in which the deoxyribose phosphate backbone is replaced by a pseudopeptide backbone and only the four natural nucleobases are retained. The neutral backbone of PNAs has been shown to allow for specific hybridization to DNA and RNA under conditions of low ionic strength. The synthesis of PNA oligomers can be performed using standard solid phase peptide synthesis protocols as described in Hyrup et al. (1996), supra; Perry-O'Keefe et al. (1996) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:14670-675.

In another embodiment, PNAs can be modified, e.g., to enhance their stability or cellular uptake, by attaching lipophilic or other helper groups to PNA, by the formation of PNA-DNA chimeras, or by the use of liposomes or other techniques of drug delivery known in the art. For example, PNA-DNA chimeras can be generated which can combine the advantageous properties of PNA and DNA. Such chimeras allow DNA recognition enzymes, e.g., RNase H and DNA polymerases, to interact with the DNA portion while the PNA portion would provide high binding affinity and specificity. PNA-DNA chimeras can be linked using linkers of appropriate lengths selected in terms of base stacking, number of bonds between the nucleobases, and orientation (Hyrup, 1996, supra). The synthesis of PNA-DNA chimeras can be performed as described in Hyrup (1996), supra, and Finn et al. (1996) Nucleic Acids Res. 24(17):3357-63. For example, a DNA chain can be synthesized on a solid support using standard phosphoramidite coupling chemistry and modified nucleoside analogs. Compounds such as 5′-(4-methoxytrityl)amino-5′-deoxy-thymidine phosphoramidite can be used as a link between the PNA and the 5′ end of DNA (Mag et al., 1989, Nucleic Acids Res. 17:5973-88). PNA monomers are then coupled in a step-wise manner to produce a chimeric molecule with a 5′ PNA segment and a 3′ DNA segment (Finn et al., 1996, Nucleic Acids Res. 24(17): 3357-63). Alternatively, chimeric molecules can be synthesized with a 5′ DNA segment and a 3′ PNA segment (Peterser et al., 1975, Bioorganic Med. Chem. Lett. 5: 1119-11124).

The oligonucleotides of the invention can also be formulated as morpholino oligonucleotides. In such embodiments, the riboside moiety of each subunit of an oligonucleotide of the oligonucleotide is converted to a morpholine moiety (morpholine=C₄H₉NO; refer to Heasman, J. 2002 Developmental Biology 243, 209-214, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference).

A further preferred oligonucleotide modification includes Locked Nucleic Acids (LNAs) in which the 2′-hydroxyl group is linked to the 3′ or 4′ carbon atom of the sugar ring thereby forming a bicyclic sugar moiety. The linkage is preferably a methelyne (—CH₂—)_(n) group bridging the 2′ oxygen atom and the 4′ carbon atom wherein n is 1 or 2. LNAs and preparation thereof are described in WO 98/39352 and WO 99/14226, the entire contents of which are incorporated by reference herein.

In other embodiments, the oligonucleotide can include other appended groups such as peptides (e.g., for targeting host cell receptors in vivo), or agents facilitating transport across the cell membrane (see, e.g., Letsinger et al., 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:6553-6556; Lemaitre et al., 1987, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:648-652; PCT Publication No. WO 88/09810) or the blood-brain barrier (see, e.g., PCT Publication No. WO 89/10134). In addition, oligonucleotides can be modified with hybridization-triggered cleavage agents (see, e.g., Krol et al., 1988, Bio/Techniques 6:958-976) or intercalating agents (see, e.g., Zon, 1988, Pharm. Res. 5:539-549). To this end, the oligonucleotide can be conjugated to another molecule, e.g., a peptide, hybridization triggered cross-linking agent, transport agent, hybridization-triggered cleavage agent, etc.

The invention also includes molecular beacon nucleic acid molecules having at least one region which is complementary to a nucleic acid molecule of the invention, such that the molecular beacon is useful for quantitating the presence of the nucleic acid molecule of the invention in a sample. A “molecular beacon” nucleic acid is a nucleic acid molecule comprising a pair of complementary regions and having a fluorophore and a fluorescent quencher associated therewith. The fluorophore and quencher are associated with different portions of the nucleic acid in such an orientation that when the complementary regions are annealed with one another, fluorescence of the fluorophore is quenched by the quencher. When the complementary regions of the nucleic acid molecules are not annealed with one another, fluorescence of the fluorophore is quenched to a lesser degree. Molecular beacon nucleic acid molecules are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,876,930.

The target RNA (e.g., pre-mRNA) splice-modifying reaction guided by oligonucleotides of the invention is highly sequence specific. In general, oligonucleotides containing nucleotide sequences perfectly complementary to a portion of the target RNA are preferred for blocking of the target RNA. However, 100% sequence complementarity between the oligonucleotide and the target RNA is not required to practice the present invention. Thus, the invention may tolerate sequence variations that might be expected due to genetic mutation, strain polymorphism, or evolutionary divergence. For example, oligonucleotide sequences with insertions, deletions, and single point mutations relative to the target sequence may also be effective for inhibition. Alternatively, oligonucleotide sequences with nucleotide analog substitutions or insertions can be effective for blocking.

Greater than 70% sequence identity (or complementarity), e.g., 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or even 100% sequence identity, and any and all whole or partial increments there between the oligonucleotide and the target RNA, e.g., target pre-mRNA, is preferred.

Sequence identity, including determination of sequence complementarity for nucleic acid sequences, may be determined by sequence comparison and alignment algorithms known in the art. To determine the percent identity of two nucleic acid sequences (or of two amino acid sequences), the sequences are aligned for optimal comparison purposes (e.g., gaps can be introduced in the first sequence or second sequence for optimal alignment). The nucleotides (or amino acid residues) at corresponding nucleotide (or amino acid) positions are then compared. When a position in the first sequence is occupied by the same residue as the corresponding position in the second sequence, then the molecules are identical at that position. The percent identity between the two sequences is a function of the number of identical positions shared by the sequences (i.e., % homology=number of identical positions/total number of positions×100), optionally penalizing the score for the number of gaps introduced and/or length of gaps introduced.

The comparison of sequences and determination of percent identity between two sequences can be accomplished using a mathematical algorithm. In one embodiment, the alignment generated over a certain portion of the sequence aligned having sufficient identity but not over portions having low degree of identity (i.e., a local alignment). A preferred, non-limiting example of a local alignment algorithm utilized for the comparison of sequences is the algorithm of Karlin and Altschul (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:2264-68, modified as in Karlin and Altschul (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:5873-77. Such an algorithm is incorporated into the BLAST programs (version 2.0) of Altschul, et al. (1990) J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-10.

In another embodiment, the alignment is optimized by introducing appropriate gaps and percent identity is determined over the length of the aligned sequences (i.e., a gapped alignment). To obtain gapped alignments for comparison purposes, Gapped BLAST can be utilized as described in Altschul et al., (1997) Nucleic Acids Res. 25(17):3389-3402. In another embodiment, the alignment is optimized by introducing appropriate gaps and percent identity is determined over the entire length of the sequences aligned (i.e., a global alignment). A preferred, non-limiting example of a mathematical algorithm utilized for the global comparison of sequences is the algorithm of Myers and Miller, CABIOS (1989). Such an algorithm is incorporated into the ALIGN program (version 2.0) which is part of the GCG sequence alignment software package. When utilizing the ALIGN program for comparing amino acid sequences, a PAM120 weight residue table, a gap length penalty of 12, and a gap penalty of 4 can be used.

Alternatively, the oligonucleotide may be defined functionally as a nucleotide sequence (or oligonucleotide sequence) a portion of which is capable of hybridizing with the target RNA (e.g., 400 mM NaCl, 40 mM PIPES pH 6.4, 1 mM EDTA, 50° C. or 70° C. hybridization for 12-16 hours; followed by washing). Additional preferred hybridization conditions include hybridization at 70° C. in 1×SSC or 50° C. in 1×SSC, 50% formamide followed by washing at 70° C. in 0.3×SSC or hybridization at 70° C. in 4×SSC or 50° C. in 4×SSC, 50% formamide followed by washing at 67° C. in 1×SSC. The hybridization temperature for hybrids anticipated to be less than 50 base pairs in length should be 5-10° C. less than the melting temperature (Tm) of the hybrid, where Tm is determined according to the following equations. For hybrids less than 18 base pairs in length, Tm(° C.)=2(number of A+T bases)+4(number of G+C bases). For hybrids between 18 and 49 base pairs in length, Tm(° C.)=81.5+16.6(log 10[Na⁺])+0.41(% G+C)−(600/N), where N is the number of bases in the hybrid, and [Na⁺] is the concentration of sodium ions in the hybridization buffer ([Na⁺] for 1×SSC=0.165 M). Additional examples of stringency conditions for polynucleotide hybridization are provided in Sambrook, et al., 2001, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., chapters 9 and 11, and Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, 1995, F. M. Ausubel et al., eds., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., sections 2.10 and 6.3-6.4, incorporated herein by reference. The length of the identical nucleotide sequences may be at least about 10, 12, 15, 17, 20, 22, 25, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 40, 42, 45, 47 or 50 bases.

II. Methods

The present invention provides compositions and methods for modulating pre-mRNA splicing using a SMO of the invention to abrogate disease-causing mutations in a protein. An SMO of the invention may modulate pre-mRNA splicing by blocking cryptic splice sites, removing an exon, including an exon, or shifting the reading frame of the pre-mRNA in order to alter protein isoform expression.

Accordingly, the present invention provides compositions and methods of treating a subject at risk of, susceptible to, or having a disease, disorder, or condition associated with aberrant or unwanted target pre-mRNA expression or function. In one embodiment, a target pre-mRNA of the invention is any aberrantly spliced or unwanted pre-mRNA encoding a protein that results in, causes, produces, or pre-disposes a subject to a disease or disorder. In another embodiment, aberrant splicing of a target pre-mRNA if the invention is not a cause of a disease or disorder, but modulation of the target pre-mRNA reduces at least one symptom of the disease or disorder.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method of preventing in a subject, a disease, disorder, or condition associated with aberrant or unwanted pre-mRNA splicing of a protein and altered protein expression or function, the method comprising administering to the subject a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO, or vector, or transgene encoding same.

A target pre-mRNA of the invention is any pre-mRNA that is abnormally spliced or a pre-mRNA whose altered activity is likely to have a beneficial effect on a subject. In one embodiment, a target pre-mRNA of the invention comprises a 5-HT2C receptor. In yet another embodiment, a target pre-mRNA of the invention is an aberrantly spliced 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA in a subject that results in a truncated, non-functional 5-HT2C receptor.

In yet another embodiment, a target pre-mRNA of the invention is an AMPA glutamate receptor (GluR) subunit comprising GluR1, GluR2, Glur3, GluR4, or any combination thereof. In a further embodiment, a target pre-mRNA of the invention is an AMPA glutamate receptor (GluR) subunit comprising GluR1, GluR2, Glur3, GluR4, or any combination thereof where it is desirable to alter the ratio of flip and flop isoforms of any one of, or any combination of these GluRs. In yet another embodiment, a target pre-mRNA of the invention is an aberrantly spliced GluR pre-mRNA in a subject that results in a truncated, non-functional glutamate receptor.

In still another embodiment, a target pre-mRNA of the invention is OGA.

In yet another embodiment of the invention, a target pre-mRNA of the invention is Aph1B. In another embodiment, a target pre-mRNA of the invention is HER3. In still another embodiment, a target pre-mRNA of the invention is FOXM1. In yet another embodiment, a target pre-mRNA of the invention is CypD.

Subjects at risk for a disease which is caused or contributed to by aberrant or unwanted target pre-mRNA expression or activity can be identified by, for example, any or a combination of diagnostic or prognostic assays known in the art. Administration of a prophylactic agent comprising a SMO can occur prior to the manifestation of symptoms characteristic of the target pre-mRNA aberrancy, such that a disease or disorder is prevented or, alternatively, delayed in its progression.

The invention encompasses methods of modulating target pre-mRNA splicing and thus expression or activity of the specified protein for therapeutic purposes. In an exemplary embodiment, the modulatory method of the invention involves contacting a cell capable of expressing a target pre-mRNA with a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO or vector or transgene encoding same, that is specific for the target pre-mRNA (e.g., is specific for the pre-mRNA) such that expression or one or more of the activities of target pre-mRNA is modulated. These modulatory methods can be performed in vitro (e.g., by culturing the cell with the agent) or, alternatively, in vivo (e.g., by administering the agent to a subject). As such, the present invention provides methods of treating a subject afflicted with a disease or disorder characterized by aberrant splicing of a target pre-mRNA molecule resulting in deleterious protein expression or activity.

A. Method of Modulating 5-HT2C Receptor Pre-mRNA Splicing

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of modulating 5-HT2C receptor pre-mRNA splicing using a SMO to mimic the function of the snoRNA, HBII-52, in a subject. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA to include exon 5b in the mature mRNA.

Diseases and disorders where increasing 5-HT2CR expression is believed to provide a therapeutic benefit to the subject afflicted with the disease include, but are not limited to, PWS and Angelman Syndrome (Kishore et al., 2006, Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 71: 329-334; Kishore et al., 2006, Science, 311: 230-232; Sridhar et al., 2008, J. Biomed. Sci., 15: 697-705); hyperphagia induced obesity (Dunlop et al., 2006, CNS Drug Rev., 12: 167-177; Nilsson, 2006, J. Med. Chem., 49: 4023-4034); obsessive/compulsive disorder (Flaisher-Grinberg et al., 2008, Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacology, 11: 811-825); depression, including psychotic depression, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder (Rosenzweig-Lipson et al., 2007, Psychopharmacology (Berl), 192: 159-170; Dunlop et al., 2006, CNS Drug Rev., 12: 167-177; Rosenzweig-Lipson et al., 2007, Drug News Perspect., 20: 565-571); sleep impairment (Monti et al., 2008, Prog. Brain Res., 172: 625-646); autism (Tandon et al., 2008, Mol. Med., 105: 79-84); epilepsy (Bagdy et al., 2007, J. Neurochem., 100: 857-873; Tupal et al., 2006, Epilepsia, 47: 21-26); schizophrenia (Rosenzweig-Lipson et al., 2007, Drug News Perspect., 20: 565-571); Parkinson's disease (Di et al., 2006, Curr. Med. Chem., 13: 3069-3081); drug addiction (Bubar et al., 2008, Prog. Brain Res., 172: 319-346); spinal cord injury or traumatic brain injury (Kao et al., 2006, Brain Res., 1112: 159-168); neuropathic pain (Nakae et al., 2008, Eur. J. Neurosci. 27: 2373-2379; Nakae et al., 2008, Neurosci. Res., 60: 228-231); diabetes (Wade et al., 2008, Endocrinology, 149: 955-961); Alzheimer's disease (Pritchard et al., 2008, Neurobiol. Aging, 29: 341-347; Arjona et al., 2002, Brain Res., 951: 135-140), and chronic pain.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with PWS. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject afflicted with PWS, wherein the SMO contacts 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA to include exon 5b from the mRNA, thereby resulting in expression of a full-length, functional 5-HT2CR protein in the subject.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with a 5-HT2CR splicing defect, where the defect results in a non-functional truncated 5-HT2C receptor that includes exon 5a, but not exon 5b. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention to a subject afflicted with a 5-HT2CR splicing defect, wherein the SMO contacts 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA, thereby resulting in expression of a full-length, functional 5-HT2CR protein in the subject.

In still another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with hyperphagia. In one aspect, the hyperphagia is caused by a 5-HT2CR splicing defect. In another aspect, the hyperphagia is not caused by a 5-HT2CR splicing defect, but the subject afflicted with hyperphagia experiences a therapeutic benefit from increasing expression of the 5-HT2CR. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject afflicted with hyperphagia, wherein the SMO contacts 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA, thereby resulting in increased expression of a full-length, functional 5-HT2CR protein and reducing hyperphagia in the subject.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), or a subject afflicted with the symptoms of OCD, In one aspect, the OCD is caused by a 5-HT2CR splicing defect. In another aspect, the OCD is not caused by a 5-HT2CR splicing defect, but the subject afflicted with OCD experiences a therapeutic benefit from increasing expression of the 5-HT2CR. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject afflicted with OCD, wherein the SMO contacts 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA, thereby resulting in expression of a full-length, functional 5-HT2CR protein and a reductions of the symptoms of OCD in the subject.

B. Method of Modulating GluR Receptor Pre-mRNA Splicing

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with a GluR splicing defect, where the defect results in a non-functional GluR. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention to a subject afflicted with a GluR splicing defect, wherein the SMO contacts GluR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the GluR pre-mRNA, thereby resulting in expression of a full-length, functional GluR protein in the subject. A skilled artisan will appreciate that the method may be used to modulate splicing of a GluR1, GluR2, GluR3, or Glur4 subunit, as well as any combination thereof.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of modulating splicing of a GluR receptor pre-mRNA using a SMO to decrease the GluR flip isoform expression in a subject. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts a GluR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the GluR to decrease the GluR flip isoform expression and in the subject. A skilled artisan will appreciate that the method may be used to modulate splicing of a GluR1, GluR2, GluR3, or Glur4 subunit, as well as any combination thereof.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with a GluR splicing defect, where the deficit results in a decreased flip:flop isoform ratio for a GluR subunit. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject afflicted with an abnormal flip:flop ratio, wherein the SMO contacts GluR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the GluR pre-mRNA, thereby resulting in decreased flip:flop isoform ratio for a GluR subunit. A skilled artisan will appreciate that the method may be used to modulate splicing of a GluR1, GluR2, GluR3, or Glur4 subunit, as well as any combination thereof.

In still another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS; Sandyk, R., 2006, Int. J. Neurosci. 116: 775-826; Ionov, I. D., 2007, Amyotroph. Lateral Scler. 8:260-265). The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts a GluR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the GluR pre-mRNA to decrease the GluR flip isoform expression and/or decrease the GluR flip/flop isoform ratio in the subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with epilepsy. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts a GluR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the GluR pre-mRNA to decrease the GluR flip isoform expression and/or decrease the GluR flip/flop isoform ratio.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of decreasing neuronal excitability in a subject. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention to a subject afflicted with neuronal excitotoxity, wherein the SMO contacts GluR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the GluR pre-mRNA, thereby resulting in decreased flip:flop isoform ratio for a GluR subunit. A skilled artisan will appreciate that the method may be used to modulate splicing of a GluR1, GluR2, GluR3, or Glur4 subunit, as well as any combination thereof.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of decreasing a Ca²⁺-conductance through a GluR in a subject. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts GluR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the GluR pre-mRNA, thereby resulting in a decreased Ca²⁺-conductance through an AMPA channel in a subject. A skilled artisan will appreciate that the method may be used to modulate splicing of a GluR1, GluR2, GluR3, or Glur4 subunit, as well as any combination thereof.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of increasing GluR desensitization in a subject. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts GluR pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the GluR pre-mRNA to decrease the GluR flip isoform expression and/or decrease the GluR flip/flop isoform ratio, thereby resulting in a increased AMPA channel desensitization in a subject. A skilled artisan will appreciate that the method may be used to modulate splicing of a GluR1, GluR2, GluR3, or Glur4 subunit, as well as any combination thereof.

C. Method of Modulating OGA Receptor Pre-mRNA Splicing

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of modulating splicing of OGA pre-mRNA using a SMO to decrease expression or functionality of OGA in a subject. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts an OGA pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the OGA pre-mRNA to favor expression of naturally occurring splice variants which have reduced catalytic activity. In one aspect, an alternative splice variant of OGA with reduced catalytic activity comprises OGA10t, a read through variant which results in 15 amino acids being added from intron 10. In another aspect, the method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts an OGA pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the OGA pre-mRNA to favor expression of a non-natural alternative splice variant of OGA with reduced catalytic activity. In one aspect, an alternative splice variant of OGA with reduced catalytic activity comprises OGA 10 wherein exon 10 of the gene is excluded. In another aspect, an alternative splice variant of OGA with reduced catalytic activity comprises OGAΔ8 wherein exon 8 of the OGA gene is excluded. Diseases and disorders where decreasing OGA expression is believed to provide a therapeutic benefit to the subject afflicted with the disease include, but are not limited to, Alzheimer's Disease.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with Alzheimer's Disease. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts an OGA pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the OGA pre-mRNA to favor expression of naturally occurring splice variants which have reduced catalytic activity, as described elsewhere herein.

D. Method of Modulating Aph1B Receptor Pre-mRNA Splicing

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of modulating splicing of Aph1B pre-mRNA using a SMO to decrease expression or functionality of Aph1B in a subject. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts an Aph1B pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the Aph1B pre-mRNA to favor expression of Aph1BΔ4, a variant in which exon 4 of Aph1B is deleted and is, thus, non-functional. Diseases and disorders where increasing Aph1B expression is believed to provide a therapeutic benefit to the subject afflicted with the disease include, but are not limited to, Alzheimer's Disease.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with Alzheimer's Disease. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts an Aph1B pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the Aph1B pre-mRNA to favor expression of Aph1BΔ4, as described elsewhere herein.

E. Method of Modulating FOXM1 Receptor Pre-mRNA Splicing

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of modulating splicing of FOXM1 pre-mRNA using a SMO to decrease expression or functionality of FOXM1 in a subject. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts a FOXM1 pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the Aph1B pre-mRNA to favor expression of FOXM1Δ3 or FOXM1Δ6. Diseases and disorders where increasing FOXM1 expression is believed to provide a therapeutic benefit to the subject afflicted with the disease include, but are not limited to, aberrant cell growth, cell differentiation, aberrant cell migration, tumorigenesis, or cancer including a liver cancer (The et al., 2002, Cancer Res. 62: 4773-80), a breast cancer (Wonsey et al., 2005, Cancer Res. 65 (12): 5181-9), a lung cancer (Kim et al., 2006, Cancer Res. 66 (4): 2153-61), a prostate cancer (Kahn et al., 2006, Cancer Res. 66 (3): 1712-20; a cervical cancer of the uterus (Chan et al., 2008, J. Pathol. 215 (3): 245-52), a colon cancer (Douard et al., 2006, Surgery 139 (5): 665-70), a pancreatic cancer (Wang et al., 2007, Cancer Res. 67 (17): 8293-300), and a brain cancer (Liu et al., 2006, Cancer Res. 66 (7): 3593-602).

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with aberrant cell growth, cell differentiation, aberrant cell migration, tumorigenesis, or cancer. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts a FOXM1 pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the FOXM1 pre-mRNA to inhibit expression of FOXM1, as described elsewhere herein.

F. Method of Modulating HER3 Receptor Pre-mRNA Splicing

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of modulating splicing of HER3 pre-mRNA using a SMO to decrease expression or functionality of HER3 in a subject. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts a HER3 pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the HER3 pre-mRNA. In one aspect, the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence and enhances inclusion of intron 3 favoring expression of a truncated, non-functional HER3 protein. In another aspect, the SMO specifically binds to the complementary sequence and enhances exclusion of exon 3 to favor expression of HER3Δ3 to produce a non-functional protein. In still another aspect, the SMO contacts a HER3 pre-mRNA and enhances the exclusion of exon 11 to favor expression of HER3Δ11 to produce a non-functional protein. Diseases and disorders where decreasing HER3 expression is believed to provide a therapeutic benefit to the subject afflicted with the disease include, but are not limited to, aberrant cell growth, cell differentiation, aberrant cell migration, tumorigenesis, cancer, and a metastatic cancer.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with aberrant cell growth, cell differentiation, aberrant cell migration, tumorigenesis, or a cancer (Baselga et al., 2009, Nat Rev Cancer 9:463-475) including liver (The et al., 2002, Cancer Res. 62: 4773-80) breast, or a metastatic cancer derived from breast (Wonsey et al., 2005, Cancer Res. 65 (12): 5181-9), lung (Kim et al., 2006, Cancer Res. 66 (4): 2153-61), prostate (Kalin et al., 2006, Cancer Res. 66 (3): 1712-20; cervix of uterus (Chan et al., 2008, J. Pathol. 215 (3): 245-52), colon (Douard et al., 2006, Surgery 139 (5): 665-70), pancreas (Wang et al., 2007, Cancer Res. 67 (17): 8293-300), and brain (Liu et al., 2006, Cancer Res. 66 (7): 3593-602). The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts a HER3 pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the Her3 pre-mRNA to inhibit expression or function of HER3, as described elsewhere herein.

G. Method of Modulating CypD Receptor Pre-mRNA Splicing

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method of modulating splicing of CypD pre-mRNA using a SMO to inhibit expression or functionality of CypD in a subject. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts a CypD pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the CypD pre-mRNA to favor expression of CypDΔ1 or CypDΔ3 which exclude exons 1 and 3 respectively. Diseases and disorders where decreasing CypD expression is believed to provide a therapeutic benefit to the subject afflicted with the disease include, but are not limited to, ALS, aberrant cell growth, cell differentiation, aberrant cell migration, tumorigenesis, Hepatitis B infection, and liver cancer.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS; Sandyk, R., 2006, Int. J. Neurosci. 116: 775-826; Ionov, I. D., 2007, Amyotroph. Lateral Scler. 8:260-265). The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts a cyclophilin-D pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the CypD pre-mRNA in the subject.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of treating a subject afflicted with aberrant cell growth, cell differentiation, aberrant cell migration, tumorigenesis, hepatitis B infection, and liver cancer. The method comprises administering a SMO of the invention, or a composition comprising a SMO of the invention, to a subject, wherein the SMO contacts a CypD pre-mRNA and modulates the splicing of the CypD pre-mRNA to inhibit expression of CypD, as described elsewhere herein.

Methods of Administration

Examples of methods for introducing oligonucleotides into cells encompass in vivo and ex vivo methods. The oligonucleotides of the invention, i.e. SMOs, are typically administered to a subject or generated in situ such that they hybridize with or bind to pre-mRNA of a specific protein. In one embodiment, the pre-mRNA encodes a 5-HT2CR. In another embodiment, the SMO enhances inclusion of exon 5b during splicing of a 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA. In still another embodiment, the pre-mRNA encodes a glutamate receptor selected from the group consisting of GluR1-4. In yet another embodiment, the SMO modulates the ratio of flip and flop isoforms of any one of, or any combination of, the GluRs. In another embodiment, the pre-mRNA encodes OGA. In yet another embodiment, the pre-mRNA encodes Aph1B. In still another embodiment, the pre-mRNA encodes FOXM1. In still another embodiment, the pre-mRNA encodes HER3. In another embodiment, the pre-mRNA encodes CypD.

The hybridization can be by conventional Watson-Crick base pairing by nucleotide complementarity and/or wobble pairing of U-G or U-A nucleic acids to form a stable duplex. Hybridization can also occur, for example, in the case of an oligonucleotide which binds to DNA duplexes, through specific interactions in the major groove of the double helix.

Conjugation of a SMO to a peptide, liposomes, colloidal polymeric particles as well as other means known in the art may be used to deliver the oligonucleotides to a cell. The method of delivery selected will depend at least on the cells to be treated and the location of the cells and will be known to those skilled in the art. Localization can be achieved by liposomes, having specific markers on the surface for directing the liposome, by having injection directly into the tissue containing the target cells, by having depot associated in spatial proximity with the target cells, specific receptor mediated uptake, or the like.

As described elsewhere herein and in the art, oligonucleotides may be delivered using, e.g., methods involving liposome-mediated uptake, lipid conjugates, polylysine-mediated uptake, nanoparticle-mediated uptake, and receptor-mediated endocytosis, as well as additional non-endocytic modes of delivery, such as microinjection, permeabilization (e.g., streptolysin-O permeabilization, anionic peptide permeabilization), electroporation, and various non-invasive non-endocytic methods of delivery that are known in the art (refer to Dokka and Rojanasakul, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 44, 35-49, incorporated in its entirety herein by reference). Methods of delivery may also include:

Cationic Lipids: Naked DNA can be introduced into cells in vivo by complexing the DNA with cationic lipids or encapsulating the DNA in cationic liposomes. Examples of suitable cationic lipid formulations include N-[-1-(2,3-dioleoyloxy)propyl]N,N,N-triethylammonium chloride (DOTMA) and a 1:1 molar ratio of 1,2-dimyristyloxy-propyl-3-dimethylhydroxyethylammonium bromide (DMRIE) and dioleoyl phosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) (see e.g., Logan, J. J. et al. (1995) Gene Therapy 2:38-49; San, H. et al. (1993) Human Gene Therapy 4:781-788).

Receptor-Mediated DNA Uptake: Naked DNA can also be introduced into cells in vivo by complexing the DNA to a cation, such as polylysine, which is coupled to a ligand for a cell-surface receptor (see for example Wu, G. and Wu, C. H. (1988) J. Biol. Chem. 263:14621; Wilson et al. (1992) J. Biol. Chem. 267:963-967; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,166,320). Binding of the DNA-ligand complex to the receptor facilitates uptake of the DNA by receptor-mediated endocytosis. A DNA-ligand complex linked to adenovirus capsids which naturally disrupt endosomes, thereby releasing material into the cytoplasm can be used to avoid degradation of the complex by intracellular lysosomes (see for example Curiel et al. (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:8850; Cristiano et al. (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:2122-2126). Carrier mediated gene transfer may also involve the use of lipid-based compounds which are not liposomes. For example, lipofectins and cytofectins are lipid-based positive ions that bind to negatively charged DNA and form a complex that can ferry the DNA across a cell membrane. Another method of carrier mediated gene transfer involves receptor-based endocytosis. In this method, a ligand (specific to a cell surface receptor) is made to form a complex with a gene of interest and then injected into the bloodstream. Target cells that have the cell surface receptor will specifically bind the ligand and transport the ligand-DNA complex into the cell.

Oligonucleotides may be directly introduced into the cell (i.e., intracellularly); or introduced extracellularly into a cavity, interstitial space, into the circulation of an organism, introduced orally, or may be introduced by bathing a cell or organism in a solution containing the RNA using methods known in the art for introducing nucleic acid (e.g., DNA) into cells in vivo. Vascular or extravascular circulation, the blood or lymph system, and the cerebrospinal fluid are sites where the RNA may be introduced.

The oligonucleotides of the invention can be delivered to a subject by any art-recognized method. For example, peripheral blood injection of the oligonucleotides of the invention can be used to deliver the reagents via diffusive and/or active means. Alternatively, the oligonucleotides of the invention can be modified to promote crossing of the blood-brain-barrier (BBB) to achieve delivery of said reagents to neuronal cells of the central nervous system (CNS). Specific recent advancements in oligonucleotide technology and delivery strategies have broadened the scope of oligonucleotide usage for neuronal disorders (Forte, A., et al. 2005. Curr. Drug Targets 6:21-29; Jaeger, L. B., and W. A. Banks. 2005. Methods Mol. Med. 106:237-251; Vinogradov, S. V., et al. 2004. Bioconjug. Chem. 5:50-60; the preceding are incorporated herein in their entirety by reference).

In certain embodiments, the oligonucleotides of the invention can be delivered by transdermal methods (e.g., via incorporation of the oligonucleotide reagent(s) of the invention into, e.g., emulsions, with such oligonucleotides optionally packaged into liposomes). Such transdermal and emulsion/liposome-mediated methods of delivery are described for delivery of antisense oligonucleotides in the art, e.g., in U.S. Pat. No. 6,965,025, the contents of which are incorporated in their entirety by reference herein.

The oligonucleotides of the invention may also be delivered via an implantable device (e.g., an infusion pump or other such implantable device). Design of such a device is an art-recognized process.

In one embodiment, a SMO is delivered directly into the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) of a subject. Delivery of a SMO into the CSF of a subject may be accomplished by any means known in the art, including, but not limited to, epidural injection or intrathecal injection via an infusion pump.

In one embodiment, SMOs are conjugated to a peptide to facilitate delivery of the SMO across the blood brain barrier (BBB) following parenteral administration to a subject. The SMO may be either directly conjugated to the peptide or indirectly conjugated to the peptide via a linker molecule such as a poly amino acid linker, or by electrostatic interaction. Peptides useful in delivering SMOs across the BBB include, but are not limited to, peptides derived from the rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG) that specifically bind to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AchR) present on neurons and the vascular endothelium of the BBB thereby allowing transvascular delivery, probably by receptor-mediated transcytosis (Kumar et al., 2007, Nature 448:39-43, encompassed by reference in its entirety); Kunitz domain-derived peptides called angiopeps (Demeule et al., 2008, J. Neurochem. 106:1534-1544; Demeule et al., 2008, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 324:1064-1072).

Recombinant methods known in the art can also be used to achieve oligonucleotide reagent-induced modulation of splicing in a target nucleic acid. For example, vectors containing oligonucleotides can be employed to express, e.g., an antisense oligonucleotide to modulate splicing of an exon of a targeted pre-mRNA.

For oligonucleotide reagent-mediated modulation of an RNA in a cell line or whole organism, gene expression may be assayed by use of a reporter or drug resistance gene whose protein product is easily assayed. Such reporter genes include acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS), alkaline phosphatase (AP), beta galactosidase (LacZ), beta glucoronidase (GUS), chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT), green fluorescent protein (GFP), horseradish peroxidase (HRP), luciferase (Luc), nopaline synthase (NOS), octopine synthase (OCS), and derivatives thereof. Multiple selectable markers are available that confer resistance to ampicillin, bleomycin, chloramphenicol, gentarnycin, hygromycin, kanamycin, lincomycin, methotrexate, phosphinothricin, puromycin, and tetracyclin. Depending on the assay, quantitation of the amount of gene expression allows one to determine a degree of modulation which is greater than 10%, 33%, 50%, 90%, 95% or 99% as compared to a cell not treated according to the present invention. Lower doses of injected material and longer times after administration of oligonucleotides may result in modulation in a smaller fraction of cells (e.g., at least 10%, 20%, 50%, 75%, 90%, or 95% of targeted cells). Quantitation of gene expression in a cell may show similar amounts of modulation at the level of accumulation of target mRNA or translation of target protein. As an example, the efficiency of modulation may be determined by assessing the amount of gene product in the cell; pre-mRNA or mRNA may be detected with a hybridization probe having a nucleotide sequence outside the region used for the oligonucleotide reagent, or translated polypeptide may be detected with an antibody raised against the polypeptide sequence of that region.

H. Method of Identifying SMOs for Skipping Exons

In general, SMOs function by sterically blocking or weakening interactions between elements of the spliceosomal complex and the pre-mRNA. Factors that influence whether an exon is spliced from its pre-mRNA and included in the mRNA include the strength of the intron-exon splice sites at either end of the exon, and on exonic and intronic regulatory motifs. In general, to facilitate exclusion (skipping) of exons from being included in mRNA of a targeted gene, the SMOs of the invention are designed to be complimentary to sequences encompassing the 5′ and/or 3′ splice sites and/or ESEs and ISEs and are not-complimentary to (avoid) ESSs and ISSs. Another major determinant of the functionality of SMOs are its thermodynamic properties. The skipping of exons from mRNA transcripts of targeted genes is enhanced by SMOs of the invention using the following set of methods.

(a) Ranking of 5′ Splice Site Strength

The relative strength of exonic 5′ splice sites is determined by the combination of splice regulatory elements such as ESEs, ESSs, ISEs, and ISSs, as well as how complementary the site is to the binding of the U1 splicing factor. U1 splice site binding is ranked by two criterion: (i) complementarity (Roca, X. et al., 2005, RNA, 11: 683-698) and (ii) thermodynamics of U1 binding to the splice site (Garland, J. A. et al., 2004, Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys, 69: 041903).

(b) Identification ESE/ESS/ISE Motifs

ESE motifs are defined using three prediction tools: ESE Finder (Cartegni, L. et al., 2003, Nucleic Acids Res, 31: 3568-3571), RESCUE-ESE (Fairbrother, W. G. et al., 2002, Science, 297: 1007-1013), and PESX (Zhang, X. H. et al., 2004, Genes Dev, 18: 1241-1250). ESSs are defined using three prediction tools PESX, and a two hexamer data set analysis by FAS-ESS (Wang, Z. et al., 2004, Cell, 119: 831-845). Finally, ISEs are predicted using the ACESCAN2 application (Yeo, G. W. et al., 2005, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 102: 2850-2855; Yeo, G. W. et al., 2007, PLoS Genet, 3: e85).

(c)RNA Structure and Oligo Walk

The Oligo Walk function of the publicly available “RNA Structure” program (Mathews, D. H. et al., 2004, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 101: 7287-7292) is used to evaluate the predicted open secondary structure of pre-mRNA sequences and the thermodynamic properties of the pre-mRNA. “RNA Structure” also provides analysis of thermodynamic parameters that determine SMO binding strength and efficiency at a given site on the target pre-mRNA.

(1) Duplex ΔG°₃₇: Estimates the Gibbs free energy of the SMO to pre-mRNA binding. More negative values for duplex ΔG°₃₇ will improve SMO binding to its target.

(2) Oligo-self ΔG°₃₇: Estimates the free energy of intramolecular SMO structures. More negative values indicate increasing stability of intermolecular structures which may interfere with target binding.

(3) Oligo-oligo ΔG°₃₇: Provides the free energy of intermolecular SMO structures. Negative values indicate more stable SMO-SMO duplexes, thus values of oligo-oligo ΔG°₃₇ closer to zero will improve SMO functionality.

(4) T_(m): Estimates the melting temperature of SMO-target sequence duplex formation. Higher T_(m) values will improve SMO binding and specificity.

(5) Break-Target: Provides the energy penalty for breaking of intramolecular RNA target base pairs when oligo is bound. Thus Optimal Break-point ΔG°₃₇: ≧0 kcal/mol

(d) BLAST Analysis of Potential Off-Target Hybridization

SMOs are screened using BLASTN analysis for potential hybridization to off-target sites in the human genome. Generally, SMOs with greater than 85% off-target hybridization to any other known pre-mRNA are eliminated from consideration.

(e) Prioritization of SMOs Based on Combined Properties

SMOs are ranked for each of the five thermodynamic criterion with approximate thresholds for criteria 1-3 as in (Matveeva, O. V. et al., 2003, Nucleic Acids Res, 31: 4989-4994) and criterion 4. Criterion 5 is ranked but is not exclusionary. The thermodynamic criterion are combined with the information on splice site strength and splice enhancer motifs to establish candidate SMOs for empirical evaluation of splicing specificity and efficiency.

It is apparent to someone skilled in the art that in most cases SMOs do not meet all criterion and there are necessary compromises made in selecting SMOs for empirical testing. For example a SMO and its target pre-mRNA sequence may be exceptionally favorable from a thermodynamic standpoint, and splice site strength and ESE elements may be strong. However, there may be predicted ESSs that would potentially lower SMO efficiency. The prioritization or weighting of the various factors in are taken into account on a case-by-case basis, when selecting SMOs at a given gene target.

Certain SMOs of the invention are designed to skip ‘out of frame’ (OOF) exons (coding exon not divisible by 3) that are not alternatively spliced. When constitutive OOF exons are skipped, the codon reading frame is shifted, resulting in an mRNA that encodes inappropriate amino acids followed soon after by a pre-mature stop codon. The protein produced by such OOF exon skipping is non-functional and is degraded. This functions to block protein expression in a cell. Examples exon skipping of OOF exons for the purpose of preventing protein expression in a cell are demonstrated elsewhere herein in the cases of FoxM1, HER3, and CypD.

IV. Pharmaceutical Compositions and Therapies

An SMO of the invention may be administered to a subject in a pharmaceutical composition. As used herein the term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” is intended to include any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like, compatible with pharmaceutical administration. The use of such media and agents for pharmaceutically active substances is well known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with the active compound, use thereof in the compositions is contemplated. Supplementary active compounds can also be incorporated into the compositions. Pharmaceutical compositions can be prepared as described below.

Depending on the particular target RNA and the dose of oligonucleotide material delivered, this process may modulate function of the target gene. In one embodiment of the instant invention, exon 5b-containing 5-HT2CR protein production is enhanced in a treated cell, cell extract, organism or patient, with an enhancement of exon 5b-containing 5-HT2CR protein levels of at least about 1.1-, 1.2-, 1.5-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, 7-, 10-, 20-, 100-fold and higher values being exemplary. In another embodiment of the invention, flop exon containing GluR protein production is reduced in a treated cell, cell extract, organism, or patient, with a decrease of flip exon GluR protein levels of at least 1.1-, 1.2-, 1.5-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, 7-, 10-, 20-, 100-fold and higher values being exemplary. Enhancement of gene expression refers to the presence (or observable increase) in the level of protein and/or mRNA product from a target RNA. Specificity refers to the ability to act on the target RNA without manifest effects on other genes of the cell. The consequences of modulation of the target RNA can be confirmed by examination of the outward properties of the cell or organism (as presented below in the examples) or by biochemical techniques such as RNA solution hybridization, nuclease protection, Northern hybridization, reverse transcription, gene expression monitoring with a microarray, antibody binding, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blotting, radioimmunoassay (RIA), other immunoassays, and fluorescence activated cell analysis (FACS).

The oligonucleotide, i.e. the SMO, may be introduced in an amount which allows delivery of at least one copy per cell. Higher doses (e.g., at least 5, 10, 100, 500 or 1000 copies per cell) of material may yield more effective modulation; lower doses may also be useful for specific applications.

Although the description of pharmaceutical compositions provided herein are principally directed to pharmaceutical compositions which are suitable for ethical administration to humans, it will be understood by the skilled artisan that such compositions are generally suitable for administration to animals of all sorts. Modification of pharmaceutical compositions suitable for administration to humans in order to render the compositions suitable for administration to various animals is well understood, and the ordinarily skilled veterinary pharmacologist can design and perform such modification with merely ordinary, if any, experimentation. Subjects to which administration of the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention is contemplated include, but are not limited to, humans and other primates, mammals including commercially relevant mammals such as non-human primates, cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, cats, and dogs.

Pharmaceutical compositions that are useful in the methods of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in formulations suitable for ophthalmic, oral, parenteral, intranasal, buccal, or another route of administration. Other contemplated formulations include projected nanoparticles, liposomal preparations, resealed erythrocytes containing the active ingredient, and immunologically-based formulations.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in bulk, as a single unit dose, or as a plurality of single unit doses. As used herein, a “unit dose” is discrete amount of the pharmaceutical composition comprising a predetermined amount of the active ingredient. The amount of the active ingredient is generally equal to the dosage of the active ingredient which would be administered to a subject or a convenient fraction of such a dosage such as, for example, one-half or one-third of such a dosage.

The relative amounts of the active ingredient, the pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and any additional ingredients in a pharmaceutical composition of the invention will vary, depending upon the identity, size, and condition of the subject treated and further depending upon the route by which the composition is to be administered. By way of example, the composition may comprise between 0.1% and 100% (w/w) active ingredient.

In addition to the active ingredient, a pharmaceutical composition of the invention may further comprise one or more additional pharmaceutically active agents.

Controlled- or sustained-release formulations of a pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be made using conventional technology.

As used herein, “parenteral administration” of a pharmaceutical composition includes any route of administration characterized by physical breaching of a tissue of a subject and administration of the pharmaceutical composition through the breach in the tissue. Parenteral administration thus includes, but is not limited to, administration of a pharmaceutical composition by injection of the composition, by application of the composition through a surgical incision, by application of the composition through a tissue-penetrating non-surgical wound, and the like. In particular, parenteral administration is contemplated to include, but is not limited to, intraocular, intravitreal, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, intrasternal injection, intratumoral, and kidney dialytic infusion techniques.

Formulations of a pharmaceutical composition suitable for parenteral administration comprise the active ingredient combined with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, such as sterile water or sterile isotonic saline. Such formulations may be prepared, packaged, or sold in a form suitable for bolus administration or for continuous administration. Injectable formulations may be prepared, packaged, or sold in unit dosage form, such as in ampules or in multi-dose containers containing a preservative. Formulations for parenteral administration include, but are not limited to, suspensions, solutions, emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, pastes, and implantable sustained-release or biodegradable formulations. Such formulations may further comprise one or more additional ingredients including, but not limited to, suspending, stabilizing, or dispersing agents. In one embodiment of a formulation for parenteral administration, the active ingredient is provided in dry (i.e. powder or granular) form for reconstitution with a suitable vehicle (e.g. sterile pyrogen-free water) prior to parenteral administration of the reconstituted composition.

The pharmaceutical compositions may be prepared, packaged, or sold in the form of a sterile injectable aqueous or oily suspension or solution. This suspension or solution may be formulated according to the known art, and may comprise, in addition to the active ingredient, additional ingredients such as the dispersing agents, wetting agents, or suspending agents described herein. Such sterile injectable formulations may be prepared using a non-toxic parenterally-acceptable diluent or solvent, such as water or 1,3-butane diol, for example. Other acceptable diluents and solvents include, but are not limited to, Ringer's solution, isotonic sodium chloride solution, and fixed oils such as synthetic mono- or di-glycerides. Other parentally-administrable formulations which are useful include those which comprise the active ingredient in microcrystalline form, in a liposomal preparation, or as a component of a biodegradable polymer systems. Compositions for sustained release or implantation may comprise pharmaceutically acceptable polymeric or hydrophobic materials such as an emulsion, an ion exchange resin, a sparingly soluble polymer, or a sparingly soluble salt.

Formulations suitable for nasal administration may, for example, comprise from about as little as 0.1% (w/w) and as much as 100% (w/w) of the active ingredient, and may further comprise one or more of the additional ingredients described herein.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for buccal administration. Such formulations may, for example, be in the form of tablets or lozenges made using conventional methods, and may, for example, 0.1 to 20% (w/w) active ingredient, the balance comprising an orally dissolvable or degradable composition and, optionally, one or more of the additional ingredients described herein. Alternately, formulations suitable for buccal administration may comprise a powder or an aerosolized or atomized solution or suspension comprising the active ingredient. Such powdered, aerosolized, or aerosolized formulations, when dispersed, preferably have an average particle or droplet size in the range from about 0.1 to about 200 nanometers, and may further comprise one or more of the additional ingredients described herein.

As used herein, “additional ingredients” include, but are not limited to, one or more of the following: excipients; surface active agents; dispersing agents; inert diluents; granulating and disintegrating agents; binding agents; lubricating agents; sweetening agents; flavoring agents; coloring agents; preservatives; physiologically degradable compositions such as gelatin; aqueous vehicles and solvents; oily vehicles and solvents; suspending agents; dispersing or wetting agents; emulsifying agents, demulcents; buffers; salts; thickening agents; fillers; emulsifying agents; antioxidants; antibiotics; antifungal agents; stabilizing agents; and pharmaceutically acceptable polymeric or hydrophobic materials. Other “additional ingredients” which may be included in the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention are known in the art and described, for example in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (1985, Genaro, ed., Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa.), which is incorporated herein by reference.

The therapeutic and prophylactic methods of the invention thus encompass the use of pharmaceutical compositions comprising a splice modifying oligonucleotide of the invention to practice the methods of the invention. The precise dosage administered will vary depending upon any number of factors, including but not limited to, the type of animal and type of disease state being treated, the age of the animal and the route of administration.

The compound may be administered to an animal as frequently as several times daily, or it may be administered less frequently, such as once a day, once a week, once every two weeks, once a month, or even less frequently, such as once every several months or even once a year or less. The frequency of the dose will be readily apparent to the skilled artisan and will depend upon any number of factors, such as, but not limited to, the type and severity of the disease being treated, the type and age of the animal, etc. The formulations of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein may be prepared by any method known or hereafter developed in the art of pharmacology. In general, such preparatory methods include the step of bringing the active ingredient into association with a carrier or one or more other accessory ingredients, and then, if necessary or desirable, shaping or packaging the product into a desired single- or multi-dose unit.

III. Kits

Kits for practicing the methods of the invention are further provided. By “kit” is intended any manufacture (e.g., a package or a container) comprising at least one reagent, e.g., at least one SMO for specifically enhancing inclusion of exon 5b in the 5-HT2C receptor for the treatment of Prader-Willi Syndrome, a 5-HT2CR splicing deficit, hyperphagia resulting from a 5-HT2CR splicing deficit, and/or symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder resulting from a 5-HT2CR splicing deficit. In one embodiment, the kit includes at least one SMO directed to a GluR for the treatment of epilepsy, a seizure disorder, or ALS. In still another embodiment, the kit includes at least one SMO directed to Aph1B for the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease. In yet another embodiment, the kit of the invention includes at least one SMO directed to OGA for the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease. In a still further embodiment, the kit includes at least one SMO directed to FOXM1 for the treatment of a carcinoma. In still another embodiment, the kit includes at least one SMO directed to HER3 for the treatment of breast cancer. In yet another embodiment, the kit includes at least one SMO directed to CypD for the treatment of ALS or liver cancer. The kit may be promoted, distributed, or sold as a unit for performing the methods of the present invention. Additionally, the kits may contain a package insert describing the kit and including instructional material for its use.

Positive, negative, and/or comparator controls may be included in the kits to validate the activity and correct usage of reagents employed in accordance with the invention. Controls may include samples, such as tissue sections, cells fixed on glass slides, etc., known to be either positive or negative for the presence of the biomarker of interest. The design and use of controls is standard and well within the routine capabilities of those of ordinary skill in the art.

EXPERIMENTAL EXAMPLES

The invention is further described in detail by reference to the following experimental examples. These examples are provided for purposes of illustration only, and are not intended to be limiting unless otherwise specified. Thus, the invention should in no way be construed as being limited to the following examples, but rather, should be construed to encompass any and all variations which become evident as a result of the teaching provided herein.

The materials and methods employed in the experiments and the results of the experiments presented in these Examples are now described.

Experimental Example 1 Design and Validation of Antisense Oligonucleotides to Increase Inclusion of Exon 5b in the 5-HT2C Receptor

The snoRNA HBII-52 promotes inclusion of exon Vb in the 5-HT2C receptor by blocking a splice silencing element in the consensus region of 5-HT2C. Thus an oligonucleotide identical to the consensus sequence of MBII-52 (the mouse homolog) was designed to block the silencing site on 5-HT2C. The first oligonucleotide was designed using a phosphorothioate linkages between nucleotides and O-methyl substitutions on the 2′ ribose and is identical to the MBII-52 complementary box as follows:

AUGCUCAAUAGGAUUACG. (SEQ ID NO. 1)

Smaller SMOs may permit more specific targeting of inhibitory elements in 5-HT2C. Therefore, a series of SMOs of varying lengths were designed using an “antisense walk strategy” that has been recently used to successfully target inhibitory regions in the SMN gene to correct splicing (Hua et al., 2007, Public Library of Science Biol. 5:e73). The SMO was “walked” base by base beginning with the 5′-most nucleotide (nt) aligned at the +3 nt position relative to the consensus sequence on 5-HT2CR pre-mRNA and ending with the 3′-most nt of the oligomer at the −3 nt position of the consensus sequence. This strategy resulted in SMOs that incrementally span the consensus region (Table 1 through Table 15). To ensure proper hybridization efficiency, these smaller SMOs may be composed of an appropriate number of locked nucleic acid (LNA) residues substituted for 2′-O-methyl nucleotides.

To validate these SMOs, the SMOs are transfected into undifferentiated NG108-15 cells that have previously been demonstrated to express both 5-HT2CR splice isoforms (5a and 5b), the ratio of which can be detectably altered by differentiation (Tohda et al., 2002, Jpn. J. Pharmacol. 90:138-144; Sukma et al., 2003, J. Pharmacol. Sci. 92:433-436; Tohda et al., 2004, J. Pharmacol. Sci. 96:164-169). Cells are harvested 48 hours post-transfection. Real-time PCR is used to quantify amounts of 5-HT2CR containing exon 5a and 5b. An SMO that mimics the effect of MBII-52 increases the ratio of 5b to 5a transcripts. Western blotting is also performed using a rabbit polyclonal antibody (Abcam) to quantify upregulation of full-length 5-HT2CR protein.

Experimental Example 2 Phenotypic Improvement in Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) Mice By SMO-Mediated Induction of SMN Expression

Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) is caused by mutations in the SMNJ gene, which encodes a protein called ‘survival of motor neuron” or SMN, a ubiquitous protein involved in RNA processing (Gubitz et al., 2004, Exp. Cell Res. 296:51-56; Monani, 2005, Neuron 48:885-896). The potential of the SMO developed by the Singh group (Singh et al., 2006, Mol. Cell. Biol. 26:1333-1346) to induce SMN expression and improve functional performance in vivo in the SMNΔ7^(+/+); SMN2^(+/+); Smn^(−/−) mice with severe type 1 SMA phenotype was recently examined (Le et al., 2005, Hum. Mol. Genet. 14:845-857). First, to assess SMO distribution throughout the CNS, FAM-SMO was delivered intracerebroventricular (ICV) and fluorescent label was imaged in cryosections of brains and spinal cords (FIG. 1A-C). SMO was found to be broadly but not uniformly distributed throughout the brain and spinal cord regions. These data were in accordance with previous studies showing very effective CNS biodistribution of SMOs of similar chemistry after both intrathecal and ICV delivery (Smith et al., 2006, J. Clin. Invest. 116:2290-2296).

When SMA mice were given periodic intracerebroventricular injections of SMO they showed greatly enhanced SMN expression at post-natal day 12 in both brain and spinal cord, reaching 35-50% of the levels in wild-type littermates (FIG. 1D-E). On average, SMN expression in the hippocampus region of SMA mice injected with SMO was 34.4±1.8%, which was significantly greater than the 13.8±1.0% in un-injected SMA controls (2.5-fold increase; P<0.001). Importantly, the high level of SMN expression in brain and spinal cord of SMA mice after ICV injection of SMO alone was accompanied by a significant improvement in body weight during post-natal development compared with un-treated SMA mice (FIG. 1E). These data represent the highest level of SMN expression reported to date in CNS of SMA mice. These data document that SMOs are broadly distributed and biologically active in CNS after ICV delivery.

Experimental Example 3 Determination of the Ability of Optimal SMO to Increase Inclusion Of 5-HT2CR Vb In Vivo

SMOs are injected ICV into brains of normal mice (C57bl/6J) for 1 week via a cannula. Optimal dose and dosing regimens are around 2 μg/day for 1 week, but can be optimized by the skilled artisan. Mouse brains are harvested one day after final injection, sub-regions are dissected out (hippocampus, cortex, hypothalamus) and trizol-extracted. Real time (RT) PCR is performed using primers previously shown to be able to distinguish Va and Vb splice variants (Kishore and Stamm, 2006, Science 311:230-232). Since both splice variants are present and detectable in normal mouse brain (Canton et al., 1996, Mol. Pharm. 50:799-807), injection of SMOs will lead to a detectable increase in the ratio of exon 5b to exon 5a-containing isoforms. Western blotting using a rabbit polyclonal antibody (Abcam) is used to determine whether expression of full-length 5-HT2CR protein has been up-regulated.

Experimental Example 4 Examination of Functional Consequence of Modulating 5-HT2CR Splicing Using Electrophysiological Techniques in Hippocampal Slices

By increasing inclusion of exon 5b in 5-HT2CR, the expression of functional receptor is also increased. Both 5a and 5b-containing transcripts are abundantly present in hippocampus (Canton et al., 1996, Mol. Pharmacol. 50:799-807), and it has been demonstrated elsewhere herein that SMO injected ICV can notably increase SMN levels in this brain region. Therefore initial electrophysiological assessment is in hippocampal slices. Activation of 5-HT2CR leads to an increase in intrinsic neuronal excitability and glutamate-mediated excitatory postsynaptic current (EPSC) amplitudes in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons (Beck, 1992, Synapse 10:334-340). These studies are done using the selective 5-HT2CR agonist Ro 60-175 (100 nM). The hippocampal slice preparation and whole-cell patch clamping techniques are used to record from CA1 pyramidal neurons. Intrinsic excitability is measured using current-clamp protocols to measure firing properties of neurons in response to voltage steps. EPSC measurements are done using voltage-clamp, and measuring synaptic responses to stimulation of Schaffer collateral input. These techniques are described in (Tallent and Siggins, 1999, J. Neurophysiol. 81:1626-1635; Tallent et al., 2001, J. Neurosci. 21:6940-6948), incorporated herein by reference, in their entirety. An enhancement in the ability of Ro 60-175 to increase excitability and EPSC amplitude after ICV injection of an optimal SMO is due to increases in the expression of functional receptor in CA1 neurons.

Experimental Example 5 GluR Subunit Selection and SMO Design

The pre-mRNA splicing pattern of GluR subunits of the AMPA receptor is shown in FIG. 2. GluRs typically contain either of two mutually-exclusive alternative exons, flip or flop. Thus, the flip/flop exons constitute classical cassette exons, as opposed to constitutive exons which are always retained in mRNA transcripts.

2′ OMe SMO that target exonic splice enhancers (ESEs) and splice site of the flip exons of GluRs are developed that facilitate specific skipping of flip exons of GluR pre-mRNAs by masking exon recognition by the spliceosome proteins. When an exon does not get spliced, it is removed (skipped) along with the introns on either side of it. The specific GluR flip subunits to be targeted as potential therapeutic agents for treating ALS include GluR 3, GluR3+GluR4, GluR1, GluR1+GluR3, and GluR1+GluR2+GluR3+GluR4. Because of the nature of conservation/divergence in ESEs and splice junctions of the flip exons of GluRs, it is possible to selectively target any individual GluR for flip exon skipping, but it is not possible to target all possible combinations. For example it may be difficult to target ESEs of both GluR1 and GluR3 in tandem without also impacting an ESE of GluR2. It would likely be even more difficult to target only the GluRs that provide Ca²⁺ permeability to the AMPA receptor (GluR1, GluR3, and GluR4), without also impacting GluR2. Given these constraints, GluR pre-mRNA targets for treating ALS would be as follows:

(a) Ranking of 5′ Splice Site Strength

The relative strength of exonic 5′ splice sites is determined by the combination of splice regulatory elements such as ESEs, ESSs, ISEs, and ISSs, as well as how complementary the site is to the binding of the U1 splicing factor. U1 splice site binding is ranked by two criterion: (i) complementarity (Roca, X. et al., 2005, RNA, 11: 683-698) and (ii) thermodynamics of U1 binding to the splice site (Garland, J. A. et al., 2004, Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys, 69: 041903).

(b) Identification ESE/ESS/ISE Motifs

ESE motifs are defined using three prediction tools: ESE Finder (Cartegni, L. et al., 2003, Nucleic Acids Res, 31: 3568-3571), RESCUE-ESE (Fairbrother, W. G. et al., 2002, Science, 297: 1007-1013), and PESX (Zhang, X. H. et al., 2004, Genes Dev, 18: 1241-1250). ESSs are defined using three prediction tools PESX, and a two hexamer data set analysis by FAS-ESS (Wang, Z. et al., 2004, Cell, 119: 831-845). Finally, ISEs are predicted using the ACESCAN2 application (Yeo, G. W. et al., 2005, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 102: 2850-2855; Yeo, G. W. et al., 2007, PLoS Genet, 3: e85).

(c)RNA Structure and Oligo Walk

The Oligo Walk function of the publicly available “RNA Structure” program (Mathews, D. H. et al., 2004, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 101: 7287-7292) is used to evaluate the predicted open secondary structure of pre-mRNA sequences and the thermodynamic properties of the pre-mRNA. “RNA Structure” also provides analysis of thermodynamic parameters that determine SMO binding strength and efficiency at a given site on the target pre-mRNA.

(1) Duplex ΔG°₃₇: Estimates the Gibbs free energy of the SMO to pre-mRNA binding. More negative values for duplex ΔG°₃₇ will improve SMO binding to its target.

(2) Oligo-self ΔG°₃₇: Estimates the free energy of intramolecular SMO structures. More negative values indicate increasing stability of intermolecular structures which may interfere with target binding.

(3) Oligo-oligo ΔG°₃₇: Provides the free energy of intermolecular SMO structures. Negative values indicate more stable SMO-SMO duplexes, thus values of oligo-oligo ΔG°₃₇ closer to zero will improve SMO functionality.

(4) T_(m): Estimates the melting temperature of SMO-target sequence duplex formation. Higher T_(m) values will improve SMO binding and specificity.

(5) Break-Target: Provides the energy penalty for breaking of intramolecular RNA target base pairs when oligo is bound. Thus Optimal Break-point ΔG°₃₇: ≧0 kcal/mol

(d) BLAST Analysis of Potential Off-Target Hybridization

SMOs are screened using BLASTN analysis for potential hybridization to off-target sites in the human genome. Generally, SMOs with greater than 85% off-target hybridization to any other known pre-mRNA are eliminated from consideration.

(e) Prioritization of SMOs Based on Combined Properties

SMOs are ranked for each of the five thermodynamic criterion with approximate thresholds for criteria 1-3 as in (Matveeva, O. V. et al., 2003, Nucleic Acids Res, 31: 4989-4994) and criterion 4. Criterion 5 is ranked but is not exclusionary. The thermodynamic criterion are combined with the information on splice site strength and splice enhancer motifs to establish candidate SMOs for empirical evaluation of splicing specificity and efficiency.

Experimental Example 6 Measure Relative Efficacy of SMOs Using Mouse Line Endogenously Expressing all Four GluRs

For analysis of SMO effectiveness, SMOs designed against the targets listed in Table 2 through Table 7 are transfected into NSC-34 cells which are mouse neuroblastoma-spinal neuron hybrids that endogenously express all four mouse GluRs (Eggett et al., 2000, J. Neurochem. 74:1895-1902; Rembach et al., 2004, J. Neurosci. Res. 77:573-582). The NSC-34 cell line is used widely as a culture model system for the study of motor neurons (Cashman et al., 1992, Dev. Dyn. 194:209-221; Eggett et al., 2000, J. Neurochem. 74:1895-1902). NSC-34 cells were found to express low levels of GluR2 compared to GluR1, 3, and 4. This is consistent with published reports that motor neurons are deficient in GluR2, thus rendering these cells vulnerable to calcium-mediated damage and excitotoxicity (Bar-Peled et al., 1999, Neuroreport 10:855-859; Heath et al., 2002, Neuroreport 13:1753-1757; Van et al., 2002, J. Neurophysiol. 88:1279-1287; Williams et al., 1997, Ann. Neurol. 42:200-207). NSC-34 cells have also been shown to efficiently uptake SMOs in culture (Rembach et al., 2004, J. Neurosci. Res. 77:573-582). Briefly, SMOs are complexed with lipofectamine and applied to NSC-34 cells (100 μM SMO) in reduced serum medium for 4-6 hours (Cashman et al., 1992, Dev. Dyn. 194:209-221; Eggett et al., 2000, J. Neurochem. 74:1895-1902). Medium is replaced and cells are grown for an additional 24-48 hours in serum-containing medium and harvested. Cells are lysed, total RNA extracted (Trizol), and cDNA generated a reverse transcriptase (MultiScribe) using dNTPs and random hexamers. The level of both flip- and flop-containing mRNA transcripts is determined for each of the GluRs using real-time PCR (TaqMan PCR system).

Next, SMOs that show the greatest decrease in the targeted flip isoforms are evaluated more extensively. The dose-response of lead SMOs are analyzed by treating cells with concentrations ranging from 0-100 μM. Westerns blots are used to quantify GluR protein levels with antibodies to GluR1 (1:100, AB5849; Chemicon), GluR2 (1:100, AB1768; Chemicon), GluR3 (1:1,500; (Gahring et al., 1998, Autoimmunity 28:243-248)), and GluR4 (1:100, AB1508; Chemicon). Toxicity is quantified by documenting morphology of nuclei (DAPI), a known hallmark of cell damage.

An iterative process of SMO evaluation and optimization is used where the efficacy of the 2 top-ranked SMOs is performed, and these data used to make the next SMO choices in a strategic manner. For example if a SMO shows a significant but incomplete reduction in flip isoform expression, bases are added or subtracted from either end to further improve efficacy.

Experimental Example 7 Determine Changes in Electrophysiological Properties of AMPA Currents after Treatment with Lead SMOs

The SMOs that produce the most efficacious skipping of flip exons are transfected into NSC-34 cells and AMPA-receptor mediated currents are studied using whole cell patch clamp. Changes in flip/flop ratios of GluRs change properties of AMPA receptor-mediated currents. Increases in the flop to flip ratio result in the following changes in AMPA receptor currents: (i) An increase in desensitization kinetics (Sommer et al., 1990, Science 249:1580-1585). (ii) A decrease in the sensitivity to cyclothiazide (Johansen et al., 1995, Mol. Pharm. 48:946-955; Partin et al., 1994, Neuron 14:833-843) and an increase in the sensitivity to PEPA (Sekiguchi et al., 1998, Br. J. Pharmacol. 123:1294-1303). (iii) A decrease in sensitivity for glutamate (Partin et al., 1995, Neuron 14:833-843; Sommer et al., 1990, Science 249:1580-1585).

NSC-34 cells have also been shown to efficiently uptake SMOs in culture (Rembach et al., 2004, J. Neurosci. Res. 77:573-582). Briefly, SMOs are complexed with lipofectamine and applied to NSC-34 cells (100 M SMO) in reduced serum medium for 4-6 hours (to induce differentiation (Eggett et al., 2000, J. Neurochem. 74:1895-1902; Rembach et al., 2004, J. Neurosci. Res. 77:573-582). Medium is replaced and cells grown for an additional 24-48 hours in serum-containing medium and harvested. Cells are lysed, total RNA extracted (Trizol), and cDNA generated with a reverse transcriptase (MultiScribe) using dNTPs and random hexamers. The level of both flip- and flop-containing mRNA transcripts is determined using real-time PCR using the TaqMan PCR system.

The whole-cell patch clamp method is used to record from treated and untreated cells using a perfusion chamber. Cells are voltage-clamped at −70 mV and 1 mM or 10 mM glutamate or AMPA is applied using a rapid superfusion system. AP5 is used to block NMDA receptors. To evaluate desensitization kinetics, 100 millisecond (ms) pulses of glutamate (Gardner et al., 2001, J. Neurosci. 21:7428-7437) are used. Desensitization kinetics are measured by fitting the decay of the AMPA current with single and double exponentials using Clampfit software (Molecular Devices).

To determine cyclothiazide sensitivity, this drug (1-100 M) is co-applied with 10 mM glutamate for 3 sec. For PEPA experiments, 10 mM glutamate and 1-1000 M PEPA are co-applied for 1 sec. Dose-response curves are generated and desensitization kinetics determined as described above. Difference in sensitivity to PEPA is greatest for GluR3 flip vs. flop, so this drug may be especially useful in determining an increase in GluR3 flop (Sekiguchi et al., 1998, Br. J. Pharmacol. 123:1294-1303).

Glutamate sensitivity is determined by applying different concentrations of glutamate (50 to 5000 M) and generating dose-response curves of maximal current response. Since flip isoforms have a higher relative sensitivity to glutamate vs. kainate, the responsiveness of individual cells to 300 M glutamate vs. 300 μM kainite is also assessed (Partin et al., 1995, Neuron 14:833-843; Sommer et al., 1990, Science 249:1580-1585).

Experimental Example 8 In Vivo Application of SMOs

A cannula is implanted into the third ventricle (coordinates: midline, 0.25 mm posterior to the bregma and 3 mm below the pial surface). Injection into the third ventricle (ICV) gives good access to the hippocampus (Chauhan et al., 2001, J. Neurosci. Res. 66:231-235). Forty eight hours following surgery, delivery of SMO ICV is begun daily for 1 week. SMOs are dissolved in sterile saline at 1 μg/μL. Optimal dose and dosing regimens can be determined by the skilled artisan, but based on previous experience, is around 2 μg/day for 1 week. Mouse brains are harvested one day after final injection, hippocampus dissected out and trizol-extracted. Real time (RT) PCR is performed using primers previously shown to specifically amplify flip and flop splice variants (Seifert et al., 2003, Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 22:248-258; Gomes et al., 2007, Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 37(2): 323-334). Significant changes in splicing are confirmed using Western blotting to determine if there are detectable changes in GluR1 protein levels.

ICV injection of the SMOs (N=5) that target GluR3-flip and GluR1-flip were made in neonatal FVB mice on postnatal days 1, 3, and 5. Control injections of saline were also made (N=4). ICV injection of the SMOs that target GluR3-flip and GluR1-flip produce potent and specific reduction in targeted transcript expression in brain tissue harvested 24 hours after the final administration of SMO (FIG. 3). Flip and flop transcript levels of all GluRs were measured using real-time PCR. Both the GluR3 and the GluR1SMOs produced nearly complete reduction in targeted transcription expression with no significant effect on other GluR isoforms. Decreasing flip in principle neurons and glia is protective against seizures (Seifert et al., 2004, J. Neurosci. 24:1996-2003; Ge et al., 2006, Science 312:1533-1537).

ICV injections of the SMOs that target all four GluR flip isoforms neonatal FVB mice on postnatal days 1, 3, and 5 produce potent reduction in GluR1, GluR2, and GluR3 flip transcript expression in brain tissue harvested 24 hours after the final administration of SMO (FIG. 4). A concomitant increase in flop transcripts was also observed.

Experimental Example 9 Efficacy of SMO in Modulating Seizure Activity in Mice

Neonatal mice were administered ICV injections of GluR1SMO on postnatal day 1, 3, and 5 and tested for seizure activity on postnatal day 10. Control ICV injections of saline were also done. Seizures were induced via an intraperitoneal injection of kainic acid and the stage of seizure was evaluate from the least severe (stage 3) to status epilepticus (stage 6). GluR1SMO administration significantly reduces the percent of mice entering stage 4, stage 5, and stage 6 seizures (FIG. 5).

Experimental Example 10 Using SMOs to Target HER3 and Treat Breast Cancer

SMOs as described elsewhere herein are developed which potently and specifically reduce HER3 expression in a cell, reduce tumorigenesis of HER2 overexpressing breast cancer cells (HOBCs) in vitro, and block metastasis in vivo. The SMOs specifically modulate HER3 pre-mRNA splicing, resulting in downregulation of functional full-length HER3. All SMOs are synthesized using of 2′MOE chemistry and designed to target identified naturally occurring non-functional alternative splice variants of HER3, as well as novel isoforms. HER3-specific SMOs are evaluated for efficacy by transfecting HOBC lines (including SKBR3, BT474, and MDA-MB-453 cell lines). Changes in HER3 expression in cells transfected with SMOs are evaluated using real-time PCR and Western blot analysis to determine the level of HER3 expression at the nucleic acid and protein level. The effects of SMOs on activation of Akt pathway in breast cancer cells using phosphospecific antibodies is also done. Cell lines are also transfected with scrambled SMOs as a negative controls.

SMOs are evaluated in HBOCs (primarily SKBR3 cells) by measuring several indices of oncogenic activity including effects on: (i) growth in soft agar, (ii) survival from matrix detachment, and (iii) invasion using transwell invasion assays.

Liver is a primary site of metastasis of HOBCs. SMOs localize most specifically to liver after IV and IP delivery (Yu et al., 2009, Biochem. Pharmacol. 77:910-919). The efficacy of SMOs directed against HER3 in blocking breast cancer cell metastasis in liver is evaluated as follows. SKBR3 cells (1×10⁶), stably transformed to express luciferase reporter, are administered through the tail vein of scid mice (N=10), immediately followed by IV injection of an HER3 targeted SMO. SMOs are injected weekly (IV) for about 6 weeks. The determination of the optimal interval for administering a SMO is well without routine experimental optimization in the art. Metastasis in liver and other organs is visualized with the quantitative IVIS Lumina Imaging System. Livers are then removed and analyzed for indices of macro and micrometastasis. HER3 expression is measured using immunohistochemistry. Mice (N=10) injected with SKBR3 cells and scrambled SMOs are controls.

Experimental Example 11 Using SMOs to Target OGA to Reduce Tau Hyperphosphorylation In Treat Alzheimer's Disease

SMOs which target splicing of both human and mouse OGA pre-mRNA to generate splice isoforms with dominant negative properties and reduced catalytic efficiency have been developed according to the methods described elsewhere herein. Exemplary SMOs targeted to produce the OGA10t and OGAΔ8 isoforms are depicted in Table 7 and Table 8.

SMOs are evaluated for their effect on O-GlcNAc levels by western blot of total protein in a cell using anti-O-GlcNAc antibody CTD110.6 (Dorfmueller et al., 2009, Biochem. J. 420:221-227). OGA splice isoforms with lowered catalytic activity result in increases of O-GlcNAcylation of proteins, since OGA will continue to attach O-GlcNAc residues on nuclear and cytoplasmic targets more rapidly than they can be removed (Yuzwa et al., 2008, Nat. Chem. Biol. 4:483-490).

SMOs are specifically delivered to the CNS by ICV injection to avoid off target peripheral effects. SMOs are delivered using short term continuous infusion of a pharmaceutical composition comprising an SMO by a stereotaxically implanted cannulae in the lateral brain ventricle and connected to a sub-cutaneously implanted osmotic pump (Alzet). Normal mice are administered either saline or a dose of SMO ranging from 1-10 μg of SMO daily for 3 weeks (Smith et al., 2006, J. Clin. Invest. 116:2290-2296). During the 3 weeks of SMO infusion, mice are evaluated weekly for declarative and spatial memory, and motor deficits by Morris water maze, novel object recognition, and rotarod testing.

Following the period of SMO administration, mice are euthanized and brain tissue (including cortex and hippocampus) extracted for testing. Real-time PCR performed on brain sections to determine transcript levels of the desired OGA10t or OGAΔ8 alternative splice isoforms. Brain tissue from saline and SMO dosed mice is also be evaluated by western blot for global increases in O-GlcNAc levels.

Triple Transgenic Alzheimer's (3×Tg) mice are administered SMOs at a dose which provides optimal effects on increasing O-GlcNAc levels. The 3×Tg mice are transgenic for PS1_(M146V), APP_(Swe), and tau_(p301L) mutations and demonstrate earlier onset of cognitive and synaptic dysfunction as compared to other AD mouse models. Onset of obvious pathology in 3×-Tg mice occurs at 6 months of age with the presence of synaptic and cognitive deficits and at 12 months the presence of tau immunoreactivity can be detected (Oddo et al., 2003, Neuron 39:409-421; Pietropaolo et al., 2008, Behav. Neurosci. 122:733-747). Thus, SMO treatment from 11-12 months of age when tau should be in a hyperphosphorylated state in addition to the presence of synaptic and cognitive deficits due to Aβ deposition, allows for short term evaluation of the effects of increased O-GlcNAc levels on overall cognitive symptoms as well as tau phosphorylation state.

Eleven month old 3×Tg mice are treated with saline or an SMO using the ICV infusion method described elsewhere for 3 weeks. During infusion period, mice are evaluated weekly for cognitive, memory, and motor deficits by Morris water maze, novel object recognition, and rotarod testing. These mice are also tested for effect on total brain O-GlcNAc levels. The mice are euthanized after 3 weeks of infusion (at ˜12 months of age). Brain tissue samples from SMO treated 3×Tg mice is evaluated at the end of the dosing period for total O-GlcNAcylation levels by western blot as compared to saline controls.

The effect of SMO that target OGA pre-mRNA on tau phosphorylation is evaluated using the same protocol described above. Samples are taken from the cortex and hippocampus and evaluated for total tau phosphorylation using tau epitope 5 antibody, modification-state specific antibodies (pSer422, pSer262, pSer396, and pThr231), and tau epitope 1 antibody directed against non-phosphorylated residues at Ser198, Ser199 and Ser202. By using this panel of antibodies, changes in phosphorylation state of all the relevant phosphorylation sites is evaluated by Western blot (Yuzwa et al., 2008, Nat. Chem. Biol. 4:483-490). Prevention of tau phosphorylation at these residues by altering splicing of OGA pre-mRNA will block progression of tau pathology in AD.

Experimental Example 12 Using SMOs to Target Aph1B to Treat Alzheimer's Disease

A “triple-transgenic” mouse model, 3×-tg AD mice, expresses mutant APP, PSN1 (presenilin), and tau transgenes. These mice have cognitive and synaptic dysfunction similar to those in other AD mice, but with earlier onset (Oddo et al., 2003, Neuron 39:409-421). Specifically, the 3×-tg Ad mice show significant memory deficits when tested using the Morris Water Maze paradigm as early as 120 days of age.

SMOs that target Aph1B, as exemplified by oligonucleotides listed in Table 9, are used to modulate splicing Aph1B pre-mRNA. An SMO that targets Aph1B pre-mRNA is infused ICV for about a 3 week period beginning at 100 days of age. This provides adequate time for the SMO to exert its effect on Aph1B pre-mRNA splicing. In addition, mice are ˜4 months of age at the end of the infusion period when they are evaluated for changes in cognitive performance.

For continuous delivery of SMO to the CSF, mice are cannulated stereotaxically into the lateral ventricle, with the cannula tubing already connected to a sub-cutaneously implanted Alzet mini pump pre-loaded with a pharmaceutical composition comprising a SMO. The pharmaceutical composition comprising the SMO is equilibrated for 2 days in sterile saline at 37° C. In this system, the cannulae, tubing, and pump is surgically implanted beneath the skin. The model pump used in these experiments delivers its contents at a constant rate of 4 μL per day and holds enough volume (100 μL) to last about 25 days. We use dosing rates of 1 to 10 μg SMO per day in mice.

Examples of SMOs that specifically skip exon 4 of the Aph1B pre-mRNA are provided in Table 9. These SMOs were developed according to the following rational: Aph1B naturally expresses a non-functional alternative splice variant missing exon 4 (Saito et al., 2005, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 330:1068-1072). Alternatively spliced exons are known to be more readily modulated by oligomers than constitutive exons. Second, exon 4 of Aph1B contains a conserved GXXXG motif, critical for the assembly and activity of the γ-secretase complex (Lee et al., J. Biol. Chem. 279:4144-4152). Thus, Aph1B protein missing exon 4 is non-functional and unstable (Saito et al., 2005, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 330:1068-1072).

An SMO is transfected into neuroblastoma SY5Y cells that express γ-secretase. SMOs are complexed with lipofectamine and applied to SY5Y cells at a concentration of 100 μM SMO for 4 hours. The bathing medium is replaced and cells are maintained in culture for an additional 24 hours before they are and harvested. RNA is extracted using standard techniques known in the art, and cDNA generated with superscript RT using oligo-dT and random hexamers. The level of Aph1B mRNA transcripts with and without exon 4 is determined using Real-time PCR. The dose-response of lead SMOs will is analyzed using Westerns blots to quantify Aph1B protein expression in transfected cells. Toxicity is also quantified by documenting morphology of nuclei and using DAPI staining, a known hallmark of cell damage (Martin et al., 2005, Cytometry Part A 67A:45-52).

At the end of the infusion period, mice are evaluated for changes in cognitive performance using the Morris Water Maze test with training beginning at the end of the 3 week drug infusion period. The Morris Water Maze comprises a 25 gallon tub 71 cm in diameter and 33 cm high containing water maintained at 23° C. A platform 6 cm in diameter is placed in the center of one quadrant. The mice have 2 blocks of 4 visible platform trials where they are given 60 seconds to reach the platform, with a 5 min inter-trial interval (Varvel et al., 2005, Psychopharmacol. (Berl) 179:863-872). Location of the platform is changed semi-randomly between trials. Mice are videotaped and latency to reach the platform is recorded. The following day the mice begin hidden platform training where the platform is submerged in opaque water. 2 blocks of 4 trials each (5 minute inter-trial interval) are run each day for 4 days, with 1 hour between blocks. A trial consists of semi-randomly placing the mouse in one of three quadrants without the platform and giving the mouse 60 seconds to locate the platform. The platform remains in the same location for the 4 days of hidden platform training.

Probe tests are run 24 and 72 hours after the final day of training. The platform is removed from the tub and the mice are semirandomly placed in one of the four quadrants and allowed to swim for 30 seconds. After the 24 hour probe the platform is placed back in the same location and the mouse allowed to find it, to minimize extinction. The percent time spent in each quadrant is recorded. A one way ANOVA is run (Statistica) to determine significance in probe trials. A repeated measures ANOVA is used to determine differences in latencies to reach the platform during training, with a post-hoc Tukey's test to determine where the significant differences occur.

Following the final behavioral test, mice are euthanized and brains rapidly removed. The left and right hippocampus and cortex are quickly excised. To alleviate biases due to potential differences between the left and right hemisphere tissues, each assay is performed on an equal number of left and right hemisphere tissues. RNA is immediately extracted from half of the hippocampus and cortex tissues, and cDNA prepared according to standard techniques known in the art. The remaining tissue is immediately processed for protein extraction and the preparation of a soluble fraction and a membrane fraction. Both soluble and membrane fraction preparations will be treated as described below.

Transcript and protein levels of Aph1B in the hippocampus and cortex are measured for all groups. Transcript levels of Aph1B will be measured by Real-time PCR, using custom primer-probe sets using GAPDH as the internal control. Aph1B protein content is measured by Western blot analysis of the soluble and membrane fractions with a polyclonal antibody (Santa Cruz; sc-49358).

Aβ40 and Aβ42 levels in hippocampus and cortex are measured in both the soluble and membrane fractions using sandwich ELISA with antibodies against human Aβ40 (2G3 antibody) and human Aβ42 (21F12 antibody), both detected with biotin-3D6 antibody (Kanekivo et al., 2009, J. Biol. Chem. 284:33352-33359)

In addition, extracts from the various brain sections are also be probed for changes in activated Notch intracellular domain (NICD), the well documented released product of Notch cleavage by γ-secretase. Another known non-amyloidal substrate of γ-secretase is N-cadherin. Western blot analysis will be used to measure levels of NICD (Cell Signaling) and N-cadherin (Santa Cruz; sc-7939).

The disclosures of each and every patent, patent application, and publication cited herein are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. While this invention has been disclosed with reference to specific embodiments, it is apparent that other embodiments and variations of this invention may be devised by others skilled in the art without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention. The appended claims are intended to be construed to include all such embodiments and equivalent variations. 

1. A method of treating a disease, disorder or condition in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering a composition comprising a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) that specifically binds a complementary sequence of a pre-mRNA that undergoes splicing to form a mRNA encoding a glutamate activated α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor subunit (GluR).
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein said disease, disorder or condition is neurological.
 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein said administration decreases hyperexcitability or excitotoxicity, increases AMPA channel desensitization, decreases glutamate sensitivity of AMPA channels, or decreases calcium ion conductance through AMPA channels.
 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the SMO in the composition specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, thereby excluding a selected exon from the mRNA encoding the GluR, and altering expression of a GluR or one or more isoforms thereof.
 5. The method according to claim 1, wherein at least one nucleotide in said SMO contains a non-naturally occurring modification comprising at least one of a chemical composition of phosphorothioate 2′-O-methyl, phosphorothioate 2′-MOE, locked nucleic acid (LNA), peptide nucleic acid (PNA), phosphorodiamidate morpholino, or any combination thereof.
 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein said SMO is selected from any of SEQ ID NOs: 57-526, or a sequence having at least 90% identity over the full sequence of any of SEQ ID NOs: 57-526.
 7. A method of treating neurological disease in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering a composition comprising a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) that specifically binds a complementary sequence of a pre-mRNA that undergoes splicing to form a mRNA encoding a glutamate activated α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor subunit (GluR).
 8. The method according to claim 7, wherein the SMO in the composition specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, thereby excluding a selected exon from the mRNA encoding the GluR, and altering expression of a GluR or one or more isoforms thereof.
 9. The method according to claim 7, wherein at least one nucleotide in said SMO contains a non-naturally occurring modification comprising at least one of a chemical composition of phosphorothioate 2′-O-methyl, phosphorothioate 2′-MOE, locked nucleic acid (LNA), peptide nucleic acid (PNA), phosphorodiamidate morpholino, or any combination thereof.
 10. The method according to claim 7, wherein said SMO is selected from any of SEQ ID NOs: 57-526, or a sequence having at least 90% identity over the full sequence of any of SEQ ID NOs: 57-526.
 11. A method of treating amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), epilepsy, traumatic brain injury, pain, brain cancer, diabetic retinopathy, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, or multiple sclerosis in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering a composition comprising a splice modulating oligonucleotide (SMO) that specifically binds a complementary sequence of a pre-mRNA that undergoes splicing to form a mRNA encoding a glutamate activated α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor subunit (GluR).
 12. The method according to claim 11, wherein the SMO in the composition specifically binds to a complementary sequence on a pre-mRNA in at least one of the group consisting of an intron-exon splice site, an exonic splice enhancer (ESE) site, and an intronic splice enhancer (ISE) site, thereby excluding a selected exon from the mRNA encoding the GluR, and altering expression of a GluR or one or more isoforms thereof.
 13. The method according to claim 11, wherein at least one nucleotide in said SMO contains a non-naturally occurring modification comprising at least one of a chemical composition of phosphorothioate 2′-O-methyl, phosphorothioate 2′-MOE, locked nucleic acid (LNA), peptide nucleic acid (PNA), phosphorodiamidate morpholino, or any combination thereof.
 14. The method according to claim 11, wherein said SMO is selected from any of SEQ ID NOs: 86, 123, 143, 228, 243, 269, 306, 318, 442, or 496, or a sequence having at least 90% identity over the full sequence of any of SEQ ID NOs: 86, 123, 143, 228, 243, 269, 306, 318, 442, or
 496. 15. The method according to claim 14, wherein said SMO is a sequence having at least 95% identity over the full sequence of any of SEQ ID NOs: 86, 123, 143, 228, 243, 269, 306, 318, 442, or
 496. 16. The method according to claim 15, wherein said SMO is a sequence having at least 95% identity over the full sequence of any of SEQ ID NOs: 86, 143, or
 228. 17. The method according to claim 16, wherein said SMO is a sequence having at least 95% identity over the full sequence of SEQ ID NO:
 228. 18. The method according to claim 15, wherein said SMO is selected from any of SEQ ID NOs: 86, 123, 143, 228, 243, 269, 306, 318, 442, or
 496. 19. The method according to claim 18, wherein said SMO is selected from any of SEQ ID NOs: 86, 143, or
 228. 20. The method according to claim 19, wherein said SMO is SEQ ID NO:
 228. 